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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



THE 



ELEMENTS 



MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 



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WILLIAM AUSTIN SMITH, M.D., M.A., Ph.D., 

PROFESSOR OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE COLUMBIA TENNESSEE ATHENAEUM. 



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A. S. BARNES & COMPANY, 

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 



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Copyright, 1882, £y A. S. Barnes & Co. 



Smith k McDougal, Electrotype**, 
82 Beekmun St., N. Y. 



PREFACE. 



rT^HE time lias come when moral philosophy must 
obey the law which has, within the past half cen- 
tury, acted so powerfully upon the sciences, and speak 
the language of the people. Fifty or sixty years ago, 
moral philosophy had a brilliant epoch, insomuch as 
it was called the queen of the sciences ; but since that 
time, its progress has been retarded. Meanwhile, the 
physical sciences have made a wonderful advance. One 
reason for this phenomenon is that the physical sciences 
have been popularized, while moral philosophy has 
spoken in the language of the universities. 

Better results are accomplished with students in this 
branch of education by the topical, than by the Socratic 
method of instruction by questions and answers. The 
teacher of moral philosophy ought not to rest contented 
with asking a question and receiving an answer, per- 
haps in a monosyllable. Eather let him name a topic, 
and require the pupil to state in his own words what he 



IV PKEFACE. 

has learned. This plan will he found to he improving 
and scientific. 

Many persons — even the young — already know what 
their duty is in a given sphere of action. Where they 
are not thoroughly informed, they need to be in- 
structed ; yet the chief thing is for them to he re- 
minded of their duty over and over again, so that they 
may put it into practice. This truth must he kept in 
view constantly, if the grand object of instruction in 
moral science is to be attained. The student is both to 
know and do his duty; thus the problems in moral 
philosophy are impressed upon him with all the force 
of personal illustrations. 

W. A. S. 

Columbia, Tenn., January, 1883. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

PAGE 

Division of the Mental Powers 8 

Harmony 9 

Causes by which this Harmony is Interrupted 10 

Interest of this Science 17 

Sources of Knowledge : 18 

CHAPTEE II. 

FIRST TRUTHS. 

In the Science of Moral Philosophy 19 

Resemblance in Mental Philosophy and Ethics 21 

Classification „ 22 

The Nature and Quality of Actions 23 

A Great First Cause , 24 

Moral Responsibility 25 

Future Existence 25 

Consequences of these First Truths 25 



VI CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER III. 

MORAL FEELINGS. 

PAGE 

Man 27 

The Desires, the Affections, and Self-Love 29 

The Human Will 30 

Explication 30 

Deliberation 31 

Conscience 31 

Man's Relation to God 32 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE DESIRES. 

Remark 34 

Animal Propensities 35 

The Desire of Wealth 38 

Ambition 37 

Illustration 38 

Emulation 38 

The Desire of Society 39 

Of Esteem 40 

The Desire of Knowledge 40 

Kinds of Knowledge 41 

Moral Improvement 41 

The Desire of Action 42 

Regulation of the Desires 43 

CHAPTER V. 

AFFECTIONS. 

Justice, Integrity 45 

To Freedom of Action 45 



CONTENTS. Vll 

PAGE 

Justice to Reputation 46 

Duty to Our Neighbor 47 

Conduct and Character 47 

Candor 48 

Justice to the Feelings 49 

The Golden Rule 50 

Moral Condition 50 

CHAPTEK VI. 

COMPASSION AND BENEVOLENCE. 

Benevolences to Distresses 53 

To Reputation 54 

To Character and Conduct 55 

To Feelings 56 

Caution 57 

Improving Moral Condition 57 

Definition.. . . c 57 

CHAPTER VII. 

VERACITY. 

Love of Truth 61 

Ascertaining Facts 61 

Delivering Statements 62 

Observations 64 

Truth of Purpose 64 

CHAPTER VIII. 

FRIENDSHIP AND KINDRED AFFECTIONS. 

Friendship, Love, and Gratitude 65 

Love of Country 66 

Domestic Affections 66 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

The Defensive Affections 67 

Exercise of the Affections 68 

Observations 69 

Moral Approbation. 70 

Happiness 71 

Downward Progress 72 

Temper 72 

Self-Love 73 

Sense in which Self-Love is Used 73 

Compared with Selfishness 74 

Eemarks 75 

Tendency of Self-Love 75 

Selfishness 76 

Disinterested Conduct and Self-Denial 77 

Observations 78 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE WILL. 

Volition 80 

Moral Causes 81 

Their Nature 81 

Uniformity of Moral Relations 83 

Knowledge 83 

Attention 84 

Moral Habits 84 

The Influence of Habits upon Character 85 

Means of Correcting Injurious Habits 86 

Conclusions 87 

Divine Assistance 87 

Its Necessity and Probability 88 

Faith 88 

Illustration 89 



CONTENTS. IX 

CHAPTER X. 

CONSCIENCE. 

PAGE 

The Moral Principle 90 

Conscience 92 

Its Function 92 

Proofs of the Existenca of Conscience 93 

Nature of its Operation 94 

Obsarvations 95 

Conscience and Reason 96 

How Conscience Acts. .• 97 

A Portion of God's Spirit 97 

Right and Wrong 97 

The Influence of Conscience 98 

Knowledge Derived from Conscience 98 

Divine Attributes Compared with the State of Man 99 

The Christian Revelation 100 

Impaired Conscience 101 

Its Influence 102 

Attention 103 

Responsibility for Belief 103 

Moral Emotions and Intellectual Processes 103 

Harmony 104 



CHAPTER XL 

THE ORIGIN OF VICE AND VIRTUE. 

Conscience 106 

The System of Mandeville. . 106 

System of Clarke and Wollaston 107 

Of Utility 108 

The Selfish System 109 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Selfishness 110 

Paley's System , 110 

Defect of Moral Systems 110 

Barbarous Nations Ill 

Theory of Sympathy Ill 

The Use of Sympathy 112 

Reason in Moral Decisions 112 

The Corruption of Conscience 113 

Harmony of the Moral Feelings 113 

Consistency of Character 114 

CHAPTER XII. 

man's relation to god. 

An Appeal to the Deity 117 

A Close Relation 117 

Justice, Benevolence, etc 118 

View of the Divine Character 118 

Moral Feelings 119 

The Divine Presence 119 

Submission 120 

Our Moral Imperfection 121 

Gratitude, Affection, and Love 121 

Character 122 

Means of Cultivating a Sense of the Divine Presence 122 

Habitual Effort 123 

Faith 123 

Its Province 124 

Illustration 125 

Truths which are Faith's Object 125 

The Influence of Faith 126 

Moral Condition 127 

Its Province in Christianity 128 



COHTE^TS. XI 

PAGE 

Christianity and Moral Philosophy 130 

The Will of God 130 

Common Sense 130 

Growth in Beauty 131 

APPENDIX. 

Political Economy 132 

Domestic Economy 133 

Esthetics 133 

Natural Theology 134 

Evidences of Christianity 134 



Alphabetical Index 137 



CHAPTER I. 

The Nature and Importance of Moral Philosophy — 
Division of the Mental Powers — Harmony— Causes 
by which this harmony is interrupted — interest of 
this Science — Sources of Knowledge. 

The Nature and Importance of Moral Phil- 
osophy. — The mental powers are divided into intel- 
lectual and moral : ethics, or moral philosophy, is the 
science of duty, and duty is anything that ought to be 
done. 

Man is to be contemplated as an intellectual, and as 
a moral being. By his intellectual powers he acquires 
the knowledge of facts, observes their connections, and 
traces the conclusions which arise from them. These 
mental operations, however, even in a high state of 
cultivation, may be directed entirely to truths of any 
extrinsic kind — either to the moral condition of the 
individual, or to his relations to other sentient beings. 
They exist in the man that is so selfish that he cares 
for nothing, and for nobody but himself and his own 
good ; he feels little beyond the personal wants, or the 
selfish enjoyments of the hour that is passing over him. 
But when we contemplate man as a moral being, new 
relations open on our view, and these are of mightier 
import. We find him occupying a place in a great 



14 ELEMEISTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

system of moral government, in which he has an im- 
portant station to fill and high duties to perform. The 
two parts of his mental constitution we perceive to be 
remarkably distinct from each other. The intellectual 
powers may be in vigorous exercise in him who has 
little feeling of his moral condition; and the moral 
feelings may be in a high state of culture in the man 
who, in point of intellectual acquirement, knows little 
beyond the truths which it most concerns him to know 
— those great but simple principles, which guide his 
conduct as a responsible being. 

Intellectual philosophy teaches about the mind, and 
moral philosophy treats of the soul. 

Division of the Mental Powers into Intellec- 
tual and Moral. — Man is to be contemplated as an 
intellectual, and as a moral being. 

By his intellectual powers man acquires the knowl- 
edge of facts. 

They may exist in an eminent degree in the man 
who lives only for himself, and feels little beyond the 
personal wants, or the selfish enjoyments of the hour 
that is passing over him. 

But when we contemplate man as a moral being, new 
relations open on our view, and these are of greater 
import. 

We find him occupying a place in a greater, or moral 
government, in which he has an important station to 
fill and high duties to perform. 

We find man placed in certain relations to a great 



ELEMEOTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 15 

moral Governor who presides over this system of 
things. 

Man is possessed of powers which qualify him to feel 
these relations, and of principles calculated to guide 
him through the solemn responsibilities which attend 
his state of moral discipline. 

In a well-regulated mind there is an intimate har- 
mony or a cooperation between these two departments 
of man's nature. 

Harmony That Ought to Exist between 
These Classes. — There is nothing so pleasant as to 
see harmony and friendship existing between the in- 
tellectual and moral powers. 

Yet harmony and friendship should not merely exist 
between classes, but in all the faculties. 

While I am speaking upon the subject of Harmony, 
I shall say something upon the subject of Association. 
In the class now to be mentioned, the associations are 
formed according to relations, which are local or casual. 
Thus a fact, a thought, or a mental impression is asso- 
ciated with the person by whom it was communicated, 
and is recalled to the mind when the place or person is 
seen, mentioned, or considered. 

Some persons seem to form almost no other associa- 
tions than those of this description. 

When a place which they had visited, for example, is 
spoken of, they immediately relate, in connection with 
it, the persons whom they met there, incidents which 
occurred in their company, and opinions or statements 



16 ELEMENTS OF MOBAL PHILOSOPHY. 

which were mentioned in conversation with them; and 
from this, perhaps, they may branch off to other cir- 
cumstances relating to these individuals, their families, 
or connections. 

These associations, however, often make a great im- 
pression on the mind. 

Thus we avoid a place that is associated with some 
painful recollection. 

Without harmony of the moral and intellectual 
powers there can be no perfect character. The intellec- 
tual faculties maybe in a healthful state while the moral 
are not, or the moral faculties may be in a healthful 
condition while the intellectual are not; and, of coarse, 
no harmony will exist under these circumstances. But 
to form a perfect moral character, there should be per- 
fect harmony in the intellectual and moral parts of our 
nature. 

We must have a sound mind, in order to know and 
understand what God commands us to do. We need, 
also, a good, forgiving disposition, so that we can do 
our duty toward our fellow-men, and do unto others as 
we would have them do unto us. 

Causes by Which This Harmony Is Inter- 
rupted, and Means of Counteracting Them. — 

It requires only slight observation to show us that a 
perfectly regulated mental condition does not exist in 
the generality of mankind. 

Dr. Abercrombie does not enter into particulars in 
tracing the circumstances which bear upon producing 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 17 

this mental derangement. Being surrounded by ob- 
jects of sense, our minds are, of course, influenced by 
external things, and it is natural that some facts should 
escape our memory; but this would not be the case if 
the mind were left at liberty to recall its own associations. 
We have two sources of knowledge, which will always 
be correct guides ; these are the light of conscience and 
divine revelation. But some object to an appeal to the 
sacred writings ; for they say it is a departure from the 
strict course of philosophical inquiry. 

Interest of the Science of the Moral Feel- 
ings. — The subject of the moral feelings is one of in- 
tense importance. Its importance, then, of course, ren- 
ders it difficult. 

It suggests great powers and properties of the think- 
ing principle. This leads us to think of a probable 
time when this body is dissolved, and our thinking and 
reasoning powers pass into a higher state of being, 
where they will still exercise their faculties — where the 
life of each individual can be brought up at one glance. 

Could we realize such a mental condition, we should 
contemplate the impressions then made with feelings 
far different from those which influence us now. 

This science must be considered as the highest of all 
our pursuits, the science which contemplates man with 
relation to God and eternal things. 

In this great science we have two infallible guides 
which, if we heed them, will conduct us to the truth. 
These guides are conscience and divine revelation. 



18 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

If, in investigating this science, we disregard the light 
of the Holy Bible, we shall resemble an astronomer 
who depends npon his unaided sight for things which 
can only be revealed to him by the most powerful tele- 
scope. 

Peculiar Source of Knowledge Bearing- upon 
it from the Light of Conscience and of Divine 
Revelation. — There are the lights of divine revelation. 
Some will consider an appeal to sacred writings a de- 
parture from philosophical method. This opinion is at 
variance with the truth. 

Induction of sound philosophy, along with the dic- 
tates of conscience and the light of revealed truth, we 
shall find to constitute a harmonious whole. 

The various parts tend to establish and illustrate each 
other. If, indeed, in any investigation of moral science, 
we disregard the light which is furnished by the sacred 
writings, we resemble an astronomer who would rely 
entirely on his unaided sight, and rejects those optical 
inventions which extend so remarkably his field of 
vision, and are to him a revelation of things not seen. 

The Holy Bible spreads forth truths, the view be- 
coming clearer and brighter the farther they are pur- 
sued, and the rays which illuminate the path converge 
in the throne of him who is eternal. 



CHAPTEE II. 

First Truths in the Science op Moral Philosophy — 
Resemblance in Mental Philosophy and Ethics— 
Classification— The Nature and Quality op Actions 
— A Great First Cause — Moral Responsibility — Future 
Existence— Consequence op these First Truths. 

First Truths in Moral Science.— The knowl- 
edge which we gain through our intellectual powers, 
may be divided into two classes; namely, knowledge 
which is acquired, and that which is intuitive; but we 
shall speak principally of the intuitive knowledge. 

This knowledge is a part of the mental constitution, 
arising with a feeling of certainty in every sound 
mind. The convictions derived from this source seem 
to occupy the same place in the moral system that the 
intuitive articles of belief do in the intellectual. They 
do not admit of direct proofs by the process of reason- 
ing. Intuitive knowledge is in itself more simple than 
anything by which it could be proved. 

The intuitive convictions differ in different individ- 
uals, arising from the peculiarities of their own mental 
condition. When, therefore, we appeal to certain con- 
ditions in the mental constitution, our appeal is made 
to a mind which is neither obscured by depravity, nor 
bewildered by the refinements of a false philosophy. 



20 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 



These two elements must go together in every correct 
inquiry in moral science, and we would no more think 
of applying to a man in an opposite condition, in regard 
to the principles of moral truth, than we would to a 
maniac. By this intuitive knowledge, we have a per- 
ception of the nature and quality of actions, as just or 
unjust, right or wrong, and a conviction of duties which 
a man owes to other men. Every man, of course, ex- 
pects the same offices from others, and on this expecta- 
tion, is founded the precept, that we should do unto 
others as we would that they should do unto us. From 
this moral impression, there arises a conviction of the 
existence of a great moral Governor of the universe. 
A belief in this Being as the First Great Cause is de- 
rived by a simple step of reasoning, that every event 
must have an adequate cause. 



First Truths in the Science of Moral Phil- 
osophy. — We have several first truths in the science of 
the moral feelings. 

1st. We have perceptions of the nature of actions, to 
show whether they are just or unjust, and a convic- 
tion of certain duties which every man owes to his 
fellow-men. 

2d. When this is fully impressed upon the mind, 
there arises the conviction of the existence of a moral 
Governor of the universe. 

3d. A sense of moral responsibility; and, 

4th. A belief in our existence in a future life. 

There are certain truths laid down in the beginning 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 21 

of every science, which are so plain that they do not 
admit of a proof ; for anything used to prove them 
would he harder to understand than the principles to 
be proved; hence, we call them intuitive principles, or 
first truths. Thus, in geometry, we have axioms; such 
as, ' ' Things which are equal to the same thing are equal 
to each other," etc. These first truths form the basis of 
the science. In moral philosophy, we also have first 
truths ; we know that to injure any one, or give him 
pain is wrong; this knowledge is not acquired, but 
intuitive. If we violate one of these principles, it is 
readily seen how easily we violate another ; we go on 
until we become wicked, and finally lost as a moral 
being. All the moral principles have some relations ex- 
isting among them. Again, by observing these princi- 
ples that we know are right, we are led on and on, until 
we become benevolent and useful to our fellow-men. 

Resemblance between First Truths, or In- 
tuitive Principles of Belief in Mental Philoso- 
phy and in Ethics.— In intellectual philosophy, we 
have certain principles, which are recognized by the 
common consent of mankind ; they are called First 
Truths. 

In moral philosophy, we also have first truths ; they 
correspond with those of the intellectual science. 

These truths, in both sciences, do not admit of being 
established by any process of reasoning ; attempts of 
this kind have been made, but more harm than good 
has resulted from such attempts. 



22 ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 

The only evidence we have of the existence 
of first truths, in both of these sciences, is an 
appeal to the consciousness of every sound, rational 
being. 

They correspond to each other, and the first thing 
that we do in an investigation is to look for these 
truths. A person may become immoral, and these first 
truths in intellectual philosophy will remain sound, 
but the truths of the other sciences may be injured by 
a wrong process of the mind. If the thoughts are 
unholy, they will have a vicious influence upon the 
character, and these truths may finally be forgotten ; 
at least, they will exert no influence. 

Classification of First Truths in Moral 
Science. — The first truths in moral science are classed : 
1st. A perception of the nature and quality of actions, 
as just or unjust, right or wrong, and a conviction of 
certain duties, as of justice, and kindness, which every 
man owes to his fellow-men. 2d. From this primary 
moral impression, there arises a conviction of the exist- 
ence of a great moral Governor of the universe. Our 
sense of his moral attributes arises, with a feeling of 
equal certainty, when, from the moral impressions of 
our own minds, we infer the moral attributes of him 
who thus formed us. 3d. From these combined im- 
pressions, there naturally springs a sense of moral re- 
sponsibility, that for the just performance of the duties 
which are indicated by the conscience, man is responsi- 
ble to the Governor of the universe. 4th. From this 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 23 

chain of moral convictions, it is impossible to separate 
a deep impression of continued existence. 

Perception of the Nature and Quality of Ac- 
tions. — A perception is noticed of the nature and qual- 
ity of actions, as just or unjust, right or wrong, and a 
conviction of certain duties; as, of justice, veracity, and 
benevolence, which every man owes to his fellow-men. 
Every man, in his own case, expects the same offices 
from others ; and on this feeling is founded the precept, 
which is felt to be one of universal obligation, to do to 
others as we would have others do to us. 

There are rules given us, and they are briefly stated 
here, in reference to the place which they hold as first 
truths. 

In applying to these important articles of belief the 
name of first truths, some persons ascribe to them the 
nature of innate ideas. 

It appears to be a point of the utmost practical 
importance, that we should consider them as arising 
out of principles which form a part of our moral con- 
stitution; and it is in this way only, that we can con- 
sider them as calculated to influence the mass of man- 
kind. But, notwithstanding all their truth and all 
their utility, it may be doubted whether they are to 
every one the foundation of his faith in another state 
of being. 

Certain fixed and defined principles of relative duty 
appear to be recognized by the consent of mankind, as 
an essential part of their moral constitution, by as abso- 



24 ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 



lute a conviction as that by which our bodily powers 
are recognized. 



Conviction of the Existence and Attributes 
of a Great First Cause. — There exists, most cer- 
tainly, in each human being, a conviction of certain 
duties ; as, benevolence, justice, etc., which are due him 
from his fellow-beings ; and in return, of course, he is 
expected by others to perform the same offices. 

From this first moral impression the very natural 
result is a conviction and belief in a great moral 
Governor. 

And the cause of our belief in this greater and purer 
Being, is clearly shown by mankind, and a survey of 
nature in its wonderful works. Our certainty of 
God's existence becomes stronger, as we view man's 
moral impressions, and then think of Him who created 
man. And when these thoughts are gathered together, 
they make us feel a moral responsibility ; that is, we 
believe that, according as man performs the many duties 
dictated by his moral conscience, he is responsible, and 
must answer to the Great Creator and Governor of the 
universe. 

In feeling thus, man must surely have sentiments 
also of awe and homage for this Great First Cause, 
very different from those which are due to his fellow- 
mortals. And at last, there is connected with these 
impressions, and inseparable from them, a belief in a 
state of happiness and moral reward beyond this present 
existence. 



ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 25 

Conviction of Moral Responsibility. — There 
are certain first, moral principles, which arise in the 
mind of every man, on the slighest reflection ; one of 
these is, the conviction of moral responsibility ; that is, 
the conviction that, in the due performance of all our 
duties indicated by conscience, we are responsible to God ; 
and farther, that we owe to Him a certain homage dis- 
tinct from that which we owe our fellow-men. 

Impressions of Future Existence. — There are 
certain impressions, which show that we shall have a 
future existence. 

Some believe that when a man dies, he is no more ; 
that there is no future existence. Others, that there 
is a future state, where all our thinking faculties, our 
feelings, and our soul still live, and are not destroyed by 
death. 

The soul lives in this world, and in a world to come. 
Knowing this, we should be ready for the future. 

Consequence of These First Truths. — The im- 
portance of these convictions of the existence and at- 
tributes of a Great First Cause and Moral Governor, of 
moral responsibility, and of future existence, as intuitive 
articles of belief, is clearly seen. 

In our moral science, as well as in intellectual and 
other great sciences, there must be some established 
first truths, which admit of no argument, and afford no 
doubt. In moral philosophy, we have some important 
first truths, which, if we do not accept as such, all far- 
2 



26 ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 

ther investigation relating to this science is fruitless. 
The Supreme Being has furnished us with a power, by 
which, from the perception of nature, we may judge of 
actions as right or wrong, just or unjust ; and from 
this, we are compelled to acknowledge a Great First 
Cause and Moral Governor as the author of our being. 
Man, going thus far in such a belief, must feel that he 
is responsible for his actions, when he knows that he 
has the power of distinguishing right from wrong. 
We must not deny a first truth, but accept it as a 
first truth. With these intuitive articles of belief, man 
is prepared to live, and to strive, in order to fit himself 
for a future and better state. Without these convic- 
tions, everything would be in a more corrupt condition 
than we now find it ; there would be no desire to do 
anything good ; for man is prone to evil. 



CHAPTER III. 

Moral Feelings — The Desires, the Affections, and 
Self-Love— The Human Will— Explication— Deliber- 
ation— Conscience— Man's Relation to God. 

Moral Feelings. — We have feelings which are 
intuitive, and others which come to ns through our 
five senses. Conscience, however, is the principal of 
the moral faculties, placed in us by Deity, to guide us 
in all of our actions ; and by it we are able to know 
right from wrong. Act as we may, conscience dictates 
to us what is just and what is unjust. 

Our desires are those feelings which prompt us to 
act for our own good and pleasure, without always 
caring about the feelings of others ; they are such as 
the desire for wealth, the desire for moral improve- 
ment, and so forth. 

The affections lead us to act for the pleasure and 
benefit of others, regardless of our own comfort; they 
are such as benevolence and justice. All of these are 
moral feelings, which are regulated by conscience ; that 
is, when it is allowed to rule. In many cases, however, 
the authority of conscience is disregarded. 

Let us now attempt to make an analysis of man as a 



28 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

moral being. In this analysis, the first thing to be 
considered is the action of man ; for by this we judge 
his internal principles. But one action may proceed 
from several motives which are different in character. 
When we are capable of comprehending motives, we 
shall then be able to judge of man's moral character. 
The elements which constitute a sensible and respon- 
sible person are various ; we may study them one at a 
time, and then take them together,* remembering that 
while we are thus occupied, we are gaming a knowledge 
of ourselves. 

There is a certain condition of the mind, in regard 
to things to be obtained. This is called desire. But 
when it is relative to actions towards others, it is affec- 
tion. Then there is another condition, which is some- 
what connected with both of these, and this is self-love. 
It influences us to seek protection for ourselves, and to 
try to obtain every thing that will be to our advantage. 
This principle is sound and good in its place, but when 
allowed to overreach its boundary, and gain too much 
influence over us, it becomes selfishness. Then a man 
can entertain very little affection for his fellow-beings. 
But there is still another element of man's nature, and 
that is the moral principle, which is known as con- 
science; this often requires a sacrifice of self-love, and 
thus prevents it from exercising a bad influence over 
man's affections. Self-love, in moderation, is right ; but 
selfishness is wrong. Self-love makes us take proper 
care of ourselves, but it degenerates into selfishness 
when it becomes excessive. 



ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 29 

The Desires, the Affections, and Self-Love. 

— When an object presents itself to our view, we may- 
have a desire to obtain it, and if we have reason to 
believe that it is within our reach, we experience hope; 
if we think we can obtain it, we then have faith; if we 
do obtain it, the result is joy; but if not, we suffer 
disappointment and sorrow. 

If we have an affection, we wish to be able to act in 
accordance with it. This is natural, and we suffer 
when our affections are not duly exercised. Seeing a 
prospect of satisfying an affection, we entertain hope. 
The reverse of this is despair. 

We have a desire for an object, and an affection for a 
person. Sometimes we desire power; this is the desire 
of ruling. Again, we have a desire for society, and 
this is one of the most common desires; as almost 
every person wishes for society, in every condition of 
life, and in all stages of civilization. One of the great- 
est of the desires is that of moral improvement. We 
desire to be better than we are. This leads to the high- 
est state of man, and it belongs to every state of society ; 
every person should have a desire to improve his moral 
habits. 

Now let us notice the affections. As the desires are 
calculated to bring some gratification to ourselves, the 
affections lead ns to our relations to other men, and to 
a certain line of conduct which arises out of these rela- 
tions. Our affections show themselves in a great many 
ways. Thus, for example, a mother proves her love for 
her child, when she watches day and night over its 



30 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 

sick-bed, and never stops to think about being tired, 
but continues showing her affection for her offspring. 

Self-love. There has been some dispute respecting 
the term self-love, both as to its general propriety and 
as to the mental feelings which ought to be referred to 
it. There can be no doubt, however, that every per- 
son has some self-love, and hence all study their own 
interest, gratification, and comfort. While some peo- 
ple have self-love in a low degree, many carry it to 
an excess, or do not keep it under control. 

The Human Will. — Simple volition, or the will, 
is that state of mind which immediately precedes ac- 
tion. If we will an act, the act follows, unless it is 
prevented by some restraint, or physical inability to 
perform the action. The will is regulated by fixed 
principles, and these principles are influenced by moral 
causes, as the affections and moral rectitude. The 
will is also influenced by attention, habit, knowledge, 
and reason. Divine aid is necessary to restore the 
will when it is impaired, and this is the province of 
faith. 

Explication. — Man has a will, and it occupies an 
important place among his faculties. The -will may be 
cultivated; that is, it may be turned away from things 
which are wrong, and directed towards those things 
which are right. The will is free, otherwise man 
would be little better than a machine. Now, since the 
will is free, man is responsible for his actions ; he is 



ELEMENTS 0E MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 31 

able to subordinate his will to that of God, and to 
choose that which is true, beautiful, and good. 

Deliberation. — We sometimes deliberate in regard 
to an action, and nothing seems to prevent its perform- 
ance ; but when we take another thought, we reflect 
that if we do so, it will injure the good name that we 
haye secured, or the favorable impression which we 
have made; perhaps, it will not benefit us much, and 
it may assist our fellow-men to a great extent; selfish- 
ness would not see others gain so much at our expense, 
and it would suggest the non-performance of the action. 
But in this case, we must be guided, not by selfishness, 
but by the principles of moral rectitude. In other 
words, we must do what we know to be right. 

Conscience. — Conscience is our guide, and when 
we have no divine revelation to consult, it tells us the 
right way, and urges us to walk in it ; hence conscience 
is a faithful monitor. "There has been much dispute 
respecting the name, the nature, and even the existence 
of the moral principle, as a distinct element of our men- 
tal constitution ; but this controversy may probably be 
considered as allied to other speculations of a metaphy- 
sical nature, in regard to which a kind of evidence was 
sought of which the subjects are not susceptible. With- 
out arguing respecting the propriety of speaking of a 
separate power or principle, we simply contend for the 
fact, that there is a mental exercise, by which we feel 
certain actions to be right and certain others to be 



32 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

wrong. It is an element or a movement of our moral 
nature which admits of no analysis and no explanation." 
We have a proof of the existence of conscience as a dis- 
tinct principle of the soul ; because conscience has an 
influence over every person. Conscience should not 
be degraded by any power. 

Man's Relation to God.— Undoubtedly man, as a 
moral being, is drawn into a close relation to his Maker, 
and he should follow the example that God has set for 
him as closely as possible. Besides, a person who is 
moral and obeys the divine law, recognizes his duty 
to improve his fellow-men by associating with them, 
and by setting a good example for them to follow. The 
moral relation of man to the Deity is intimate, and 
man's place in reference to his Creator should be, and 
is, his most important position. Hence, the first in- 
quiry is, what should be the condition of a man's heart, 
in order to fill this position with propriety ? 

1st. He should cultivate a sense of the divine pres- 
ence, and regulate his conduct thereby. 

2d. Humble submission to Providence, as regulated 
by a Being of infinite power and w T isdom. 

3d. A sense of moral imperfection and guilt, with 
the humility and self-abasement which arise out of this 
feeling. 

4th. A sense of gratitude and love towards the Deity, 
as the giver of all good, as our preserver and gracious 
benefactor. 



CHAPTER IV. 

The Desires — Animal Propensities — The Desire op 
Wealth — Ambition — Illustration — Emulation — The 
Desire of Society— Of Esteem — The Desire of Knowl- 
edge—Kinds of Knowledge — Moral Improvement — 
The Deslre of Action — Regulation of the Desires. 

The Desires. — We have a desire for any object 
when we wish to possess it, and think that the posses- 
sion of it will make us happy. There are a great many 
desires; among which are the desire for society, the 
desire of reputation, the desire of wealth, of power, of 
friends, and of various other things. But the desires 
should be kept under our control ; for when they are 
once allowed to have full sway, it will cause some trou- 
ble to restrain them. Two persons may have the same 
desire, but be prompted by entirely different motives. 
One person may have a desire for wealth ; because he 
thinks that he could aid the needy. The other person 
thinks that if he were wealthy, his friends would love 
him more than they do under the present circum- 
stances. We should exercise great care in directing 
our desires. They should tend towards something that 
will benefit some one. The objects of desire embrace 
all those attainments and gratifications which mankind 



34 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

consider worthy of being sought after. The object 
pursued in each particular case is determined by the 
views, habits, and moral dispositions of the individual. 
In this manner, one person may regard an object as 
above every other worthy of being sought after, which 
to another appears insignificant and worthless. 

Remark. — A person sees an object, wants it, and 
thinks it worthy to be sought after. The principles 
which regulate diversities in the desires, and conse- 
quently form one of the great differences in human 
character, belong to another part of our inquiry. In 
forming a classification of the desires, we must be 
guided simply by the nature of the various objects which 
are desired. Those which may be specified as the most 
prevalent, and the most clearly to be distinguished as 
separate, may be referred to the following heads. 

Among the desires, we have noticed the desire for 
knowledge, for moral improvement, for superiority, for 
esteem and approbation, for wealth, for information, 
and for society. All of these desires can be carried too 
far ; as, for instance, a desire for wealth increases until 
a man loves gold and forgets his duties ; then he is 
called a miser. It is right to make money, if the pro- 
cess does not interfere with any higher duty ; but the 
desire of wealth, like any other desire, is hurtful when 
it is allowed to exercise an undue influence over the 
character. Desire may act differently upon different 
persons. For instance, one man will gratify a desire 
as soon as it makes appearance, regardless of conse- 



ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 35 

quences; a second will hesitate, consider the circum- 
stances, and sometimes act one way, and sometimes 
another ; but a third person has such fixed moral prin- 
ciples in his character, that he will determine at once 
not to gratify an improper desire by any means. Thus 
we have three persons acting differently under the 
same desire. The man who can do what is right, 
against the force of an ardent desire, is a man of prin- 
ciple, and we can depend upon the rectitude of his 
conduct, even in cases where other men would falter or 
go astray. 

Desire of the Animal Propensities. — The ani- 
mal propensities are among the desires, and they lead 
to the gratification of the appetites ; we see this illus- 
trated in the case of the glutton and the drunkard. 
When the desire of the animal propensities is allowed 
to usurp undue influence, we have the lowest and most 
degraded character that can be conceived in the social 
world. The gratification of the animal propensities is 
commonly called the appetites. 

Appetites are implanted in us for important pur- 
poses. When the animal propensities are allowed to 
break through all restraints, the consequences to society 
are of the most hurtful nature. What accumulated 
guilt, degradation, and wretchedness follow the course 
of the libertine! Thus is constituted a class of evils, 
of which no human law can take any adequate cogni- 
zance, and which therefore raise our views, in a special 
and peculiar manner, to a Supreme Moral Governor. 



36 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Unrestrained animal propensities injure both the indi- 
vidual and society. 

Man is more than a mere animal, for he possesses 
reason. The animal is guided by impulse, but man is 
controlled by law. He who knows how to subdue his 
passions has learned an important lesson in morality. 
Such a man has risen to a higher level in the scale of 
humanity. He has conquered himself, and this is one 
of the greatest victories that lie can achieve. His pas- 
sions no longer master him, but he has overcome them, 
and uses them as his servants. A victory like this is 
worthy of a man's best endeavors. 

The Desire of Wealth is possessed by almost 
every one, and when it is properly used, it is an excel- 
lent thing; in the hands of a benevolent person it is of 
great use and importance, but when it is carried too far, 
it degenerates into a sin. A miser has any amount of 
money, yet he does no good with it ; he sees persons 
around him suffering for want of food, and still he does 
not relieve them ; he thinks of little but his money ; he 
neglects his duty to God, puts his whole power at work 
collecting money, and dies carrying nothing with him 
but sin, and leaving his money behind him. Other 
persons have wealth, live in luxury and ease ; they ' 
relieve all around them, thus making money of great 
use and pleasure to themselves and to suffering human- 
ity. Money is a good thing to possess, except when it 
takes our thoughts from every thing higher, and then 
we are led to neglect our duties to God and to man- 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 37 

kind. Some persons stoop to sin, in order to obtain 
wealth; they will steal, and even commit murder to 
procure money. 

The Desire of Power. — Ambition, or the desire 
of power, is the love of ruling, or of giving law to a 
circle of men, whether more or less extensive. When 
it becomes the governing propensity, the strongest 
principles of human nature give way before it, even 
those of personal comfort and safety. Thus we read 
of conquerors, who brave every danger to attain power ; 
also of the statesman, who sacrifices health and peace. 
Then, there is the desire of exercising power over the 
minds of men ; of persuading a multitude, by arguments 
or eloquence, to deeds of usefulness ; of pleading the 
cause of the oppressed ; a power of influencing the 
opinions of others, and of guiding them into sound 
sentiments and virtuous conduct. This is a species of 
power, the most gratifying by far to an exalted and 
virtuous mind, and one calculated to carry benefits to 
others wherever it is exerted. 

The Desire of Superiority, or Emulation. — 

This is allied to the desire of power, except that it does 
not include any desire to rule, but it aims simply at the 
acquirement of pre-eminence. It is apt to lead to un- 
due means for the accomplishment of its object; and 
every real or imagined failure tends to excite envy. 
Hence, it requires the most careful regulation, and 
when much encouraged in the young, it is not free 



38 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

from the danger of sinking into malignant passions. 
Emulation may be seen in the case of gentlemen who 
strive to excel in dress and the luxury of the table, so 
that they may surpass their associates in these particu- 
lars. The same principle, directed to more worthy 
objects, may influence him who seeks to be dis- 
tinguished in some high pursuit, intended to confer a 
lasting benefit upon his country. 

Illustration. — The desire of power is seen in a sol- 
dier, when he sacrifices his life, health, and every thing 
to win a name ; so ambitious, so anxious is he to be 
distinguished. Still, this desire, if not allowed to pass 
its bounds, does good. Many men strive for post- 
humous fame, in order to leave a great name in the 
world after they are dead. But when self-love or 
vanity is too great, the ambitious man neglects his real 
duty for some less worthy object. 

Emulation.— The desire of superiority, or emula- 
tion, has an extended influence, when once allowed to 
gain power over man; and it is not easily confined 
within the limits of principle. It will lead a man on 
until he will hesitate at nothing to accomplish his 
object ; and when he fails in this, he is almost sure to 
become envious, or his hatred will be aroused. There- 
fore this desire should be carefully guarded. It is well 
that we should possess some ambition. But this should 
not be too much encouraged in the young ; for, after a 
while, it may result in evil passions. 



ELEMEOTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. ' 39 

The influence is measured according to the objects 
toward which the desire is directed. We see examples 
of it around us almost every day. A lady seeks to 
surpass her associates in the richness and elegance 
of her apparel, the profusion of her table, or the at- 
tractiveness of her house. Again it is seen in a man 
whose desire is to perform the most daring deeds, or 
to be the most fearless rider, and in a thousand other 
instances. 

But this same principle, when directed toward higher 
objects, may be useful and beneficial to him who pos- 
sesses it as well as to his associates. There is some 
reason to think, however, that the custom of giving 
prizes to children in school is attended with as much 
harm as good. Emulation is thus excited to such a 
pitch that the result is often anything but pleasing. 
Bad feelings are thus aroused among pupils, and the 
teacher learns too late that it would have been better 
if he had not excited so much emulation. 

The Desire of Society. — Necessary as this desire 
is for the exercise of all of the affections, it is found in 
the union of men in communities, and in social inter- 
course, in the ties of friendship, and in the union of 
the domestic circle. If a person is not permitted to 
associate with his fellow-men, he is almost certain to 
show a strong attachment for animals ; as if he could 
not live without some object on which to exercise the 
feelings which are given to every one, as a bond of 
union. 



40 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

The Desire of Esteem, or Approbation.— 

Here is the love of haying a good name, and of being 
esteemed by everybody. One man has a desire, but he 
will not gratify it, for fear that a certain person, or 
perhaps the community, will not approve of his course, 
and that, if he gratifies his desire, he will be less highly 
regarded. Some people there are, who will do almost 
anything to gain the approbation of men. They are 
not always guided by their own conscience, or sense of 
what is right, but they do exactly so as to please other 
people, and to be praised by them. It is a good thing 
to be praised by those who are themselves praised, and 
the esteem of good people is worth striving for; and 
while we are seeking for the praise of men, it is proper 
to make this distinction. When we praise others, it 
should be done in moderation, if it is to be worth any- 
thing. The more our characters are improved, the 
more value will belong to the praise which we bestow. 
Remember that, in giving and receiving approbation. 

The Desire of Knowledge.— When an object 
possesses qualities which we think render it worthy of 
our possession, we feel a desire for it. So our conduct 
is often regulated by the desires and affections. Of 
the desires there may be many mentioned in moral 
philosophy, and these may, or may not, exert a good 
in II nonce, according to the manner in which they are 
governed. All of the desires are of a kind of selfish 
nature. The desire of knowledge includes the prin- 
ciple of curiosity, which is only another name for the 



ELEMENTS OE MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 41 

spirit of inquiry. The tendency of this high principle 
must depend, as in the former cases, on its ^gulation, 
and the objects to which it is directed. The desire of 
knowledge may be considered among the more elevated 
desires ; but this, too, when it is the predominating 
power, may become selfish. But when this desire 
keeps a fair means of obtaining its ends, and when 
obtained, is not selfishly used, it may be considered as 
one of the most influential powers. It is interesting 
to watch the desire of knowledge manifesting itself in 
children. The objects of this desire may vary from the 
idle tattle of the day to the highest attainments in 
literature. 

i 
Kinds of Knowledge. — There are two kinds of 
knowledge ; as, intuitive and acquired. The intuitive 
principles, or first truths, are those which we know 
from the first; they were made with the soul, and are 
the foundation of ethics, or moral philosophy. Ac- 
quired knowledge is gained by experience. We know 
that we exist, and this is intuitive knowledge. On the 
other hand, we can easily tell, for instance, what harm 
gambling does, by looking at the many men who have 
gone to ruin from year to year by indulging in such 
practices. This, however, is acquired information. 

The Desire of Moral Improvement is less 
likely to distort our feelings than any of the desires ; 
but even this may be carried to such an extent that 
the person who thus exercises this desire sacrifices not 



42 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

only his own pleasure with that of others, but he may 
also unconsciously injure men in order to do this ; so 
intent is he upon one object, that he neglects other 
important ones. Still the desire of moral improvement 
leads to the highest state of man, and it bears this pecu- 
liar character, that it is adapted to men in every scale 
of society, and teuds to diffuse a beneficial influence 
around the circle with which the individual is con- 
nected. 

The Desire of Action. — A principle this is which 
ought to be mentioned as a leading peculiarity of hu- 
man nature, though it may be difficult to determine the 
class to which it belongs. A person who is accustomed 
to work becomes weary, and then he desires rest ; but 
when he has accomplished his desire, and has nothing 
to do, he finds himself dissatisfied and wretched. Tri- 
fling engagements of the unoccupied are referable to 
the same principle ; they arise simply from a desire of 
mental excitement, the bliss of having something to 'do, 
rather than from any interest which occupations of 
that kind really possess. 

Rest with its true pleasure is known best by those 
who must work regularly at their employments. Con- 
tinued rest soon becomes tiresome, and on this account 
we may assert that the greatest degree of real happi- 
ness and enjoyment belongs to the middle classes of 
people, who have, besides the pleasures of life, an im- 
portant and useful occupation, nnd not to the men of 
idleness, or to the unemployed votaries of fashion. 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 43 

There is scarcely anything of more importance, in 
the external circumstances of individuals, than the 
promotion of their happiness, which is due to an 
interesting occupation. 

Regulation of the Desires. — We should keep 
our desires under control, and be careful not to have 
too many unnecessary wants ; for, if we can not get 
them supplied, it will make us unhappy. We should 
not waste our time upon useless desires, as it will make 
us cold and selfish. A desire for wealth is allowable, 
but we must not suffer it to interfere with our duties; 
if we are avaricious, it makes us love the bright glim- 
mer of gold so much that we forget our duty to God, 
and to our fellow-men. 



CHAPTER V. 

The Affections — Justice, Integrity — Freedom of Action 
—Justice to Reputation — Duty to our Neighbor — 
Conduct and Character— Candor — Justice to the 
Feelings— The Golden Rule— Moral Condition. 

The Affections. — As the desires are intended to 
bring some gratification to ourselves, the affections lead 
us to our relations to men, and to a certain line of 
conduct which proceeds from these relations. Thus 
avarice, or ambition, or the desire of knowledge, and 
all of the other desires, have for their object the pro- 
curing of some gratification for ourselves ; it is the 
pleasure of the possession of the money, or the power, 
or the knowledge, upon which the mind rests. But the 
feeling of justice, benevolence, parental affection, and 
the others here brought to view, are of a different na- 
ture. They are not desires seeking gratifications for 
ourselves, but feelings of duty to be performed towards 
others. An affection is a feeling of justice and benevo- 
lence. Emulation is a desire ; it seeks a gratification 
for itself. Patriotism and regard for truth belong to 
the affections. They arise out of our relations to others, 
and urge us to certain duties towards them. Our affec- 
tions gain strength, the longer they are exercised. The 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 45 

mother loves her infant; but the older it grows, the 
more her love for the child increases. An affection 
tends to guard us against certain conduct of men. We 
say that we have an affection and love for living per- 
sons, and a desire for inanimate objects. The affections 
are to be viewed as original principles of our nature, 
planted within us for wise purposes. Their action is 
distinct from that of conscience and of reason. 

Justice to the Interests of Others is Integrity. 

—Justice is at all times due to the person and property 
of others. This constitutes honesty or integrity. The 
great rule for guidance in this branch of science is 
found in the principles of moral rectitude. The test is, 
that our conduct to others should be the same as that 
which we should like to receive from them, were our 
interests concerned. In other words, we must obey the 
golden rule, and act towards others as we would have 
them act towards us. This secures peace and happiness. 

Justice to the Freedom of Action of Others. 

— Some writers class justice with the affections; and it 
seems to be more nearly allied to them than to any 
of the moral emotions. Justice is a primary and essen- 
tial part of our moral constitution ; and hence, in 
youth, we should be taught to act justly towards every 
one, and continue it all through life. Justice embraces 
certain facts, in which every person has an absolute 
right; and here no man has a right to interfere with 
him. These rights have been divided into three classes; 



46 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 

namely, First, what I possess, no man has a right to 
take from me. Second, what I have a right to do, no 
man must prevent it. And, third, what I expect from 
other persons, it is their duty to perform. 

Justice is due to the person, property, and interest of 
all men. To be just constitutes honesty and integrity. 
Of course, it implies abstaining from every dishonest or 
injurious violation of men's rights. Justice admonishes 
us not to interfere with the freedom of action claimed 
by persons. This constitutes personal liberty, which 
is of priceless value to its possessor. 

Justice to the Reputation of Others. — In rep- 
resenting every thing in its true light, this consists. 
We should correct a false report that is being cir- 
culated, whether it concerns our friends or enemies, 
and use every effort to prevent its further circulation. 
A person may become involved in great difficulty, by 
attempting to show justice to one who has been placed 
in a false position; for by showing justice to one per- 
son, he may involve another in trouble. Great care 
should be exercised in collecting the truths together, 
so that every thing may be represented as it is, and 
then, if one is compelled to make his decision, let it be 
in favor of the person who has been misrepresented. 
By all means, let the decision be just. If all persons 
would only be careful as to what they say of others, 
there would be a great harmony in the world; and we 
should always remember that other persons may value 
their reputation as much as we do ours. When we are 






ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 47 

compelled to tell any thing which we do not like to 
repeat, we should weigh every word, and think what 
impression it will convey, before we utter it, and then 
there is little danger in being embarrassed, if we are 
cross-questioned. Nor shall we be sorry for the words 
that we have spoken. 

Without a doubt, justice is due to the reputation of 
others. We should do nothing that would injure the 
good name of any man. The best of us may have a 
dislike for a person, although he has never done any 
thing that would injure us, and we may hear things 
said about him that would damage his reputation ; but 
it is our duty, in such a case, to correct the report, if 
we know that it is false. 

Duty to our Neighbor. — Our duty towards our 
neighbor admonishes us not to do him any injustice, 
nor must we wrong him in any way. We must not 
make unpleasant remarks about him, thus injuring him 
in the opinion of men. This is negative ; but we have 
a positive duty towards our neighbor, which bids us to 
love him, and to aid him whenever it is in our power 
to give him assistance. This reflection, when carried 
to its full extent, admitting the fatherhood of God, 
recognizes the universal brotherhood of men. 

Justice in Estimating the Conduct and 
Character of Others. — To succeed in this, requires 
that we should carefully consider the motives that 
caused a person to act in a certain manner. We should 



48 ELEMENTS OF MOJtAL PHILOSOPHY. 

not hastily judge of the character of a person from one 
action ; for this act may be contrary to his usual con- 
duct. When an action is referable to several motives, 
we must always attribute it to the most favorable one. 
It may happen that one has performed a deed against 
us; in trying to assign the action to the most favorable 
motive, there will be a violent conflict with self-love. 
We should then put ourselves in his place, and see if 
we should not have acted in the very same manner, 
under like circumstances. We shall generally find that 
we were at first too severe in our judgment. It is 
easier and better to forgive than to resent an injury, 
while it tends to cultivate the amiable qualities of 
goodness, mercy, and gentleness of disposition ; seeds 
which are sown on earth, but destined to flourish in 
Paradise. 

Candor; or, Justice to the Opinions of 
Others. — We should be just in all of our undertak- 
ings, whatever may be the consequences. When a 
person expresses an opinion, we should not be influ- 
enced by dislike, so as not to be just in regard to 
its correctness, neither should we be blinded by affec- 
tion, to think that the opinions of a person are right. 
It is our duty not to regard our love or dislike, in de- 
ciding whether a mnn is right or wrong, but we must 
be just. Candor is a quality which few possess in the 
highest degree. People are too much afraid of not 
being esteemed, and this restrains them from expressing 
their opinions freely. However, if a person entertains 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 49 

an erroneous notion, we should correct it; and in the 
same manner we should be just in our estimation of 
individuals, all along striving to guard ourselves against 
the bad influences of prejudice. We may not expect 
to acquire moral perfection all at once, but we are to 
improve little by little. 

Justice to the Feelings of Others. — Justice is 
due to the feelings of others, and this applies in many 
instances which do not affect either their character or 
their reputation. We may be unconscious of it, but 
at the same time wound men's feelings by our behavior 
before them. There are some persons who are exceed- 
ingly sensitive; towards these one strives to make 
himself as agreeable as possible, when he is in their 
presence. We may find persons who would not injure 
any one's feelings intentionally, but would still neglect 
paying the proper attention to things of this kind. 
And some men even bestow real benefits in such a 
manner as to wound the feeling of him upon whom 
the kindness is bestowed. 

But the higher orders or degrees of misconduct, 
without any intended injury, may inflict permauent 
pain. Justice is opposed to flattery on the one hand, 
and on the other, to any unnecessary depreciation of 
character. The interests of others should not be in- 
jured. There is also a still higher class of injuries 
which the conscientious man will avoid; namely, in- 
juries done to the moral principle. Towards minds 
of an extreme delicacy, a person of correct feeling strives 
3 



50 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

to conduct himself with suitable tenderness. We may 
find, however, persons of honest and upright minds, 
who would shrink from the least approach to real in- 
jury, but yet neglect the necessary attention to the 
feelings. The lower degrees of this principle belong 
to what is called mere good training, which has been 
denned as benevolence in trifles; but the higher de- 
grees may restrain from conduct which, without any 
real injury, inflicts permanent distress. 

The Golden Rule. — A great principle of justice 
is embraced in the golden rule. We should not be 
regardless of each other's feelings. Some of our 
friends, perhaps, are sensitive, and w r hat we could say 
to one with impunity would wound the feelings of 
others. If we put ourselves in their places, w T e see 
precisely how we should wish them to treat us, and 
there will be no reason to complain ; for surely we do 
not wish our friends to treat us indifferently, or slight 
us in the least ; and if they act well towards us, w T e 
ought to do the same for them. 

Justice to the Moral Condition of Others.— 

To the moral feelings of others, justice is due; and 
this may be applied to many circumstances. Without 
injuring people in their interest or their reputation, or 
even in our own opinion, we may behave to them in 
Buch a manner as to give them offence. However, we 
may find persons of honest and well-disposed minds, 
who neglect the necessary attention to the feelings. 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 51 

To this head we may, perhaps, refer a due regard to 
the estimate which we lead a man to form of himself. 
This is opposed to flattery on the one hand, and on the 
other, to any unnecessary depreciation of his character. 
Flattery, indeed, is to be considered as a violation of 
that part of the truth which is known as veracity. A 
good definition of veracity is, that it consists in telling 
the truth. Injuries done to the moral principles of 
men, form a class of offences of which no human law 
takes any adequate cognizance; but we know that 
such injuries are wicked in their character and in their 
consequences. 






CHAPTER VI. 

Compassion and Benevolence — Benevolence to Dis- 
tresses — To Reputation — To Character and Con- 
duct — To Feelings— Caution — Improving Moral Con- 
dition—Definition. 

The Cultivation of the Feelings of Compas- 
sion and Benevolence is calculated to promote two 
objects: the alleviation of distress in others, and the 
promotion in ourselves of a mental condition adapted 
to a state of moral discipline. Benevolence is wishing 
well to everybody, and beneficence is doing well to 
mankind. But if we really and truly wish well to our 
fellow-mortals, good conduct towards them is almost 
sure to be the result. Our benevolence is more certain 
of success, if its object is to relieve human suffering 
rather than to promote happiness directly. By bring- 
ing us continually in contact with the suffering and 
want of others, compassion and benevolence have a 
tendency to withdraw us from the power of self-love ; 
they enable us to benefit others, but they also benefit 
ourselves. Compassion and benevolent exertion are 
due towards alleviating the distresses of others, towards 
their reputation, towards their character and conduct, 
and towards their feelings; they are also exercised 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 53 

towards overcoming the moral degradation of others, 
including their ignorance and vice. The philanthropist 
is a lover of men, and in his conduct, benevolence and 
compassion are exemplified. He seeks for the suffering, 
and uses his best efforts to bring them certain and 
speedy assistance. Compassion and benevolence can 
be cultivated and improved in our own characters, so 
that, instead of giving us trouble, they will become easy 
by repetition, blessing us with a high degree of moral 
satisfaction and enjoyment. 

Benevolence towards the Distresses of 
Others. — Kindness, benevolence, and gentleness 
should mark our conduct towards every one, for by 
this way we increase the fund of human happiness and 
gain many friends. Benevolence is to be exercised 
towards others ; this consists not only in avoiding all 
injustice to their characters, but in protecting them 
against injuries, to check the course of slander, and to 
subdue the bad effects of those things which would 
make angry feelings among friends. Politeness, be- 
nevolence, morality, and religion teach us to cultivate 
good-will towards men. Benevolence seeks to extend 
the light of divine truth to nations that sit in moral 
darkness, and looks anxiously for the period of time 
when the knowledge of Christianity shall dispel every 
false faith, and put an end to the horrors of supersti- 
tion. 

We should keep in mind that we must sometimes 
deprive ourselves of comforts for the benefit of others. 



54 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Giving aid by money, with those who have the means, 
is one of the easiest forms in which benevolence can 
be granted. By personal exertion and by individual 
kindness, the same affection may be exercised in a 
degree much higher in itself, and often this personal 
aid is more useful than money to the afflicted. Full 
details of this subject would lead us into a field 
of inquiry which is too extensive for our present 
purpose. 

Benevolence towards the Reputation of 
Others. — Towards the reputation of others benevo- 
lence is to be exercised. This consists, not only in 
avoiding any injury to their characters, but in exer- 
tions to protect them from hurtful things, to correct 
misrepresentations, to check the course of slander, and 
to obviate the attempts of those who would poison 
the confidence of friends, or disturb the harmony of 
society. 

Benevolence is a disposition to do good to every one. 
If we are always kind to men, and do or say nothing 
that we think will be unpleasant to them, we shall act 
benevolently. If we can not say anything that will 
raise their reputation, we need not say anything at all. 
We should avoid those who slander or otherwise disturb 
the peace of society. A short slander reaches farther 
than a long apology does. 

One of the affections, as it is, benevolence is of a most 
exalted character. When brought to bear upon the 
reputation, it tries to preserve a man's good name, but 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 55 

not by any false intimation, or anything of that kind. 
A benevolent man will regret to know that any human 
being has suffered an injury in his reputation. It is 
the part of benevolence to protect mankind against all 
such misfortunes. It corrects erroneous statements, 
and guards human character as a jewel which is far 
more precious than diamonds and rubies. If you hear 
that a worthy character has a lauded reputation, by no 
means injure it; on the contrary, if you know of a 
single good quality belonging to him, let him have the 
benefit of it, but do not assist about making a report, 
unless you have the necessary information. It is a 
good thing to wish well to everybody, so that both our 
words and actions may be characterized by genuine and 
true benevolence. 

Benevolence towards the Character and 
Conduct. — Including forgiveness of injuries, this con- 
sists in guarding ourselves against injuring the charac- 
ter of others. Character is what a man really is, while 
reputation is only what the world says about him. We* 
must not damage a person's character by speaking, or 
by insinuation, particularly if he has in any way of- 
fended us. Even if we hear any one abusing his char- 
acter, we are not to stand and listen to it in silence. 
If this person happens to be a very clear friend, of 
course the hearer will not listen to anything that 
might hurt his character. If it does require courage, 
then, speak even in behalf of an enemy ; and though 
this course may not be praised by our friends, it is 



56 ELEMENTS OE MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

more in the sight of God than simply taking the part 
of a friend. 

Forgiveness of injuries is appropriately placed here ; 
for if we are careful to avoid injuring another's charac- 
ter, we shall soon be prepared to forgive the injuries 
that he may have inflicted. 

Benevolence towards the Feelings of Others. 
— Good-will towards the feelings of men is benevolence ; 
it includes those kindly affections which produce such 
a powerful influence in all the relations of life, but 
which it is hard for us to* delineate. Benevolence 
seems particularly to belong to our association with 
inferiors a*nd dependents. It may often relate to trifles, 
but it includes many circumstances in which we may 
surrender our own feelings to those of others. Many 
persons, who are benevolent in numerous respects, are 
apt to forget that a highly important feature of benevo- 
lence consists in the cultivation of gentleness, courtesy, 
and kindness. 

An important feature of veracity is correctness in 
ascertaining facts. This is essential to the love of 
truth. In the reception of truth, especially on the evi- 
dence of testimony, we acquire by degrees an experi- 
ence of caution, arising from having been deceived 
sometimes. The want of necessary caution leads to 
credulity; but it is the part of a well-regulated mind 
to avoid this extreme. In other minds, this may pro- 
due,' a kind of uncertainty with regard to all evidence; 
that is, it may produce scepticism, which is the other 
extreme, and should also be avoided. 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 57 

Caution. — We should be very careful not to wound 
the feelings of any person. Eemember that, to some 
people, we can say a great deal, and they will not object 
to it, while, if we were to say half as much to others, 
they will be deeply wounded. We should not only 
be particular in this respect, but we should discourage 
others from saying objectionable things; and when 
such remarks have been made, it is our duty to prevent 
their bad effects, so far as it may be in our power to 
make the reparation. 

Benevolence towards Improving the Moral 
Condition of Others. — There are different ways of 
improving the condition of a man. We may do this 
in a kind, friendly way; if we are wealthy, our gifts 
should be tendered in a gentle way, with loving gen- 
erosity. Some givers are benevolent just for approba- 
tion ; they wish the public to know of their gifts; they 
bestow them in such a condescending manner that the 
receiver is made to feel badly ; while others have good 
intentions, but do not know how to act in a becoming 
spirit. 

Definition. — Affections are feelings towards a per- 
son or persons; as, love, friendship, gratitude, and the 
domestic affections. In morals it is advisable that we 
should know what a duty is itself, and not content our- 
selves by explaining a term by a mere word or set of 
words. The best way to understand the true meaning 
of benevolence and compassion is to study them in the 



58 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

conduct of our associates, and to practise them our- 
selves as important means of improving our moral 
characters. 

Unquestionably there are different kinds of affec- 
tions; as, the parental, the filial, the conjugal, the 
human affections, the kind regard which we entertain 
for our fellow-men, together with our love for God. 
Benevolence is to be exercised in regard to the moral 
degradation of fallen humanity, including men's igno- 
rance and vice. This prevents us from deriving satis- 
faction from moral evil, even though it should contribute 
to our advantage. It aims at raising man's moral 
condition. 



CHAPTEE VII. 

Veracity — Love of Truth — Ascertaining Facts — De- 
livered Statements — Observations — Truth of Pur- 
pose. 

Although we have spoken about veracity, we re- 
turn to it now for the purpose of examining it more 
particularly. Its place in moral philosophy is too im- 
portant for it to be neglected, and we should spare no 
pains to make it a practical feature in our moral char- 
acter. 

All men have a natural tendency to speak the truth, 
unless this principle is overcome by some strong, sel- 
fish motive. We are inclined to depend upon the 
veracity of others, until, by experience, we grow cau- 
tious. This is the reason why children and inexperi- 
enced persons are credulous and easily imposed upon 
by unfounded statements. Upon this confidence in 
the truthfulness of mankind, is founded a large portion 
of the knowledge on which we rely; such as that which 
we receive through the historian, the traveller, and the 
naturalist. Credulity believes too much, while scep- 
ticism believes too little; and these are the two ex- 
tremes, which we must learn to avoid with all of the 
patient attention which we are able to command. 






60 ELEMEifTS OE MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Some of the principal elements which are essential 
to veracity are: first, correctness in obtaining facts; 
second, accuracy in relating them ; and third, fidelity 
in keeping promises. The correctness in learning facts 
is necessary to the love of truth. It requires us to be 
very careful respecting all statements which we accept 
as true, and not to accept anything as the truth, until 
we are sure that the authority is good, and that the 
statement contains all the facts to which our attention 
ought to be directed. 

Closely connected with the love of truth in receiving, 
is the exercise of veracity in the statement of facts, 
whether derived from our own observation, or accepted 
by testimony from others. We should be careful in 
relating anything, and should state it just as it is, in 
such a manner as to make a correct impression upon 
the hearer. To veracity, under this head, we also refer 
the rule of giving to others an honest and fair impres- 
sion of our views, motives, and intentions. This is 
sincerity. 

We now come to the third element of veracity, which 
is truth of purpose, or fidelity in keeping promises. 
This is opposed to any actual departure from what was 
really promised, or to avoiding the performance of a 
stated or implied engagement, on any other ground 
than inability to perform it. By this integrity of pur- 
pose, an individual gives a clear impression of what 
he honestly intends to perform, and does it, no matter 
what may have happened to make fulfilment dis- 
agreeable or injurious to himself. Still, the person to 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 61 

whom one makes a promise, may release him from its 
performance. 

The Love of Truth in the Reception of it. 

— We are to exercise much care respecting every state- 
ment which we receive as true, and are not to receive 
an assertion until we are thoroughly satisfied that the 
authority is of a nature upon which we can fully rely. 
The sound exercise of judgment, which is connected 
with this love of truth, differs, therefore, from the art 
of ingenious disputation, and is often found directly at 
variance with it. The love of truth, however, is of 
equal importance in the reception of facts, and in the 
formation of opinions. 

The practice of this sincere and candid search after 
truth, on every subject to which the mind may be 
directed, ought to be cultivated in early life with great 
care. It is a habit of the mind, which must exercise 
a most important influence in the formation of both 
moral and intellectual character. In the reception of 
truth, especially on the evidence of testimony, we ac- 
quire by experience a degree of caution. Some minds 
lack this, while others have too much caution. 

Ascertaining Facts. — One important element of 
veracity is correctness in ascertaining facts. This is 
essential to the love of truth. It requires us to exercise 
discretion in regard to every statement which we receive 
as true, and not to accept it as such, until we are 
assured that it is worthy of belief, and that the state- 



C2 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

ment contains all of the facts to which our attention 
ought to be directed. In science we may suppose that 
the wonderful statements have been advanced without 
attention to this direction ; and yet, if we examine the 
matter, we shall find that many of the admissions, 
which appear so strange to us, were not received until 
they were proved by scientists in different ages, and in 
countries which are remote from each other. This 
procedure guards us against those limited views, by 
which party spirit, or a love of favorite dogmas, leads a 
man to receive the facts which favor a particular opin- 
ion, and neglect those which are opposed to it. The 
practice of a sincere and candid search after truth, on 
every subject to which the mind may be directed, ought 
to be cultivated in early life, with the most assiduous 
attention. 

Veracity in Delivering Statements. — Asso- 
ciated with the love of truth in receiving facts, is the 
exercise of veracity in the statement of them, whether 
derived from our personal observation, or received by 
testimony from others. This includes sincerity. It 
consists not only in the most scrupulous accuracy of 
relation, but in giving it in such a manner as to convey 
a correct impression to the hearer. Veracity is opposed 
to that method which tries merely to assume the appear- 
ance of truth. 

Facts may be associated together in such a manner 
as to give the appearance of cause and effect, when they 
are in truth entirely unconnected; or an event may be 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 63 

represented as usual, which has occurred only in one 
or two instances. The common saying, that there 
are two ways of telling a story, does not directly refer 
to what is called fabrication, or falsehood, but to those 
distortions of circumstances which, however slight, 
have the effect of changing the impression made by 
the whole statement. Sincerity is opposed to flattery, 
which tends to give a man a false impression of our 
opinion and feeling toward him, and leads him to a 
false estimate of his own character. 

Another element of veracity is truth of purpose, or 
fidelity in the fulfilment of promises. This is opposed 
to a departure from what was promised; likewise, to 
exciting a hope, or conveying an impression which one 
does not mean to fulfil. When a man promises a 
thing, he ought to keep his promise, though he may 
find it disagreeable or injurious to himself. "He 
sweareth to his own hurt," says a sacred writer, " and 
changeth not." 

Fallacy does not always consist in stating the facts 
erroneously. Sometimes the facts, though truly given, 
leave a false impression. We should guard against this ; 
because it is equivalent to a direct false statement in 
its effect. And we should not infer that because a cer- 
tain thing happened once or twice it must always be 
so. We should state facts as they are : one change may 
cause a wrong impression. Closely allied to this is sin- 
cerity. It is directly opposed to hypocrisy ; for it does 
not feel one thing and say another. Its sentiments 
are always stated just as they come from the heart. 



64 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Observations. — When we have told the truth 
about anything, we experience satisfaction and enjoy- 
ment, although we may be punished for it, instead of 
gaining a reward from our fellow-men; for the y look 
on the outward part, but God looks upon the heart, 
the soul, while he sees what our motives are, and what 
prompts us to action. Therefore, let us always speak 
the truth; it is mighty, and shall prevail. Veracity is 
truthfulness, and leads to fidelity in the fulfilment of 
a promise. It is the duty of every one to tell the truth, 
as far as it is in his power to do so. When we have 
been deceived by a person, we are disposed never to 
believe a statement of his without the testimony of 
some one else, in whose veracity we confide. Some- 
times we may promise a thing which it is unpleasant 
to fulfil, but duty admonishes us to keep our promises. 

Truth of Purpose. — Faithfulness, or truth of 
purpose, in the fulfilment of promises, is an element 
of veracity ; it is opposed to all those deceits by which 
one may convey a false impression. By a straight- 
forward, honest, and upright purpose, one gives a clear 
impression of what he really intends to perform. Every 
person should be careful about making promises ; and 
no one should make a promise, unless he knows that 
he is able to fulfil it. Then, if he promises and fails 
fco do as he said he would, he must have a good reason 
for such conduct. Promises are easily made, and they 
arc as easily broken, but they are not so easily forgotten 
by those persons who have thus been disappointed. 



CHAPTEE VIII. 

Friendship and Kindred Affections — Friendship, Love, 
and Gratitude — Love of Country — Domestic Affec- 
tions—The Defensive Affections — Exercise of the 
Affections— Observations — Moral Approbation — Hap- 
piness — Downward Progress — Temper — Self-Love — 
Sense in which Self-Love is Used — Self-Love Com- 
pared with Selfishness— Remarks — Tendency of Self- 
Love — Selfishness — Disinterested Conduct — Observa- 
tions. 

Friendship and Kindred Affections. — Friend- 
ship, love, and gratitude, as affections, are nearly con- 
nected. They consist in a personal attachment to an 
individual, or to individuals. We exercise these affec- 
tions in a manner to promote the interest and comfort 
of the object of our regard ; to preserve and advance 
his reputation ; his feelings we treat with great tender- 
ness. "We endeavor to improve his intellectual and 
moral condition. Improvement of moral condition is 
the highest office of friendship. 

Gratitude is a feeling of thankfulness towards a 
benefactor for some deed of his kindness. Gratitude, 
the affections, and self-love are all closely and inti- 
mately related to each other; they show themselves in 
a peculiar love for a person or for persons. 






66 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Love of Country. — Patriotism is the love of coun- 
try ; it can not be considered as a distinct affection, but 
as a result of other affections. It requires that we 
should respect the institutions of our country, willingly 
submit to the laws, and defend our laud in all attacks 
made upon its liberty. Patriotism also requires that 
we cultivate this love of country in others, and try to 
improve the moral as well as the mental condition of 
our fellow-citizens. This last is the highest office of 
patriotism. 

The love of one's country is a very laudable affection. 
It is a wish to promote the interest of the government 
in every possible way, influenced by no other motive 
than a pure love of country. 

Care should be taken that the affections, particularly 
the defensive affections of anger, jealousy, and resent- 
ment, do not exert an undue influence upon our con- 
duct. They are good enough in their places, but the 
trouble is, that when they are aroused we are not able 
to restore them to perfect tranquillity. 

The Domestic Affections. — In this class are in- 
cluded the conjugal affections, parental feeling, with 
the ties of brothers and sisters. These affections and 
feelings call forth a high degree of exertion, to perform 
the duties required by them. In the conjugal relation, 
the affections lead persons to the tenderness, the con- 
fidence, the united sympathy of those who have one 
hope, one course of duty, and one interest. The pa- 
rental affections require the highest possible degree of 



ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 67 

that feeling which studies the advantage and the wel- 
fare of the object of a parent's care. The father studies 
the advancement of his child's happiness, the improve- 
ment of his min 1, together with the formation of his 
character and habits, both as a rational and as a moral 
being. 

It is very beautiful to observe how these domestic 
affections arise out of each other, and how the right 
exercise of them tends to their mutual development. 
The father should consider his son as his special care ; 
he should watch over the strengthening of his character, 
and the cultivation of his moral feelings. He should 
see that his son has suitable company ; and, as far as 
possible, has good influences over him, by never doing 
anything in his presence which it would injure the 
the child to imitate. 

The Defensive Affections are the feelings of 
jealousy, anger, and resentment; these are, not less than 
the other affections, to be considered as a part of our 
moral nature. They are calculated to perform a very 
important duty, provided they are kept under the con- 
trol of reason and of the moral principle, or conscience. 

By the exercise of our feelings of justice and benevo- 
lence, we sympathize with the injured and oppressed, 
and try to defeat the schemes of their enemies. But a 
still higher object can be accomplished by these feel- 
ings; that is, to seek the offender, and try to convert 
enemies into friends. These feelings are often improp- 
erly used, and that is the case when they are allowed 



V 



68 ELEMENTS OF MOBAL PHILOSOPHY. 

to be roused by trivial causes. When our feelings are 
excited to a higher pitch than the injury calls for, or 
when we harbor our revenge long after we should have 
forgotten and forgiven the affront, and when resent- 
ments lead in any measure to retaliation or undue 
revenge, they are wrong. Yet the sound exercise of 
the defensive affections is frequently necessary. Their 
proper object is primarily a sense of blamable conduct 
in others, and they lead us to use proper measures for 
protecting ourselves. 

Defensive affections can do both good and evil. We 
may do wrong, and cause the anger of our parents or 
friends ; and to think of losing friends, perchance by 
our own carelessness, may bring us to a heartfelt repent- 
ance. What a happy man must he be, who puts the 
best construction upon everything! who does not take 
offence at trifles ; does not study, as some do, irritating 
speeches to rouse the anger of a person who has done 
him no harm ! Those who are the most ready to take 
offence, are the persons who are not always prepared to 
forgive. 

Important Influence Produced upon the Ex- 
ercise of the Affections. — The influence produced 
upon the affections by attention and by habit is very 
strong, or important, and it consists in directing the 
mind intensely to all the considerations which ought 
to guide us, in the case to which the affection refers. 
It leads us to imagine ourselves in other peoples' places, 
and it teaches us to do unto them as we would have 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 69 

them act in regard to us. We then not only enter into 
their feelings and try to relieve the distress of those 
with whom we are brought in contact, but we are in- 
clined to seek out persons who are in trouble, and try 
to console them : this is called sympathy. 

By steadily directing the attention to sympathy, we, 
in a great measure, overcome our selfishness. The 
influence produced upon the affections by habit is great. 
A distinguished philosopher says: "The tendency of 
all emotions is to become weaker by repetition, or to 
be less acutely felt, the oftener they are experienced." 
When the emotion of pity for human distress is aroused, 
it ought to accomplish its proper object, before it sinks 
into barren coldness and indifference to suffering. 

Observations. — Parental love is very strong. We 
see it illustrated wiien a mother sits up night after 
night with her sick child, regardless of her own health. 
She does not act thus because she is afraid that she will 
be considered heartless, and be censured by her neigh- 
bors if she does not do so, nor because she thinks that 
it is her duty ; but because of her great love for the 
child. The filial affection is also remarkable. A loving 
child will do almost anything for his parents. Obedi- 
ence is the first care with him, and it is his chief duty. 

In order that moral causes may be uniform, persons 
should have sound minds and be civilized. We hardly ex- 
pect a savage to experience the same effects from moral 
causes that a civilized person does. The barbarian 
knows little of the divine Governor of the universe, 



70 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

and even this little is imperfect; he has not been 
taught to read the Scriptures. Neither do we expect 
to find an idiot expounding the Word of God; the 
idiot cannot understand it, as his mind is impaired, or 
entirely destroyed; he knows nothing of God, or the 
hereafter. We do hope to find persons with good 
minds and highly educated, influenced by moral causes. 
But there are many things which call the mind from 
God, and we find some of the highly-educated persons 
among skeptics; but there is something seriously 
wrong about the person, if he does not believe in the 
Supreme Being, and in a future state of rewards and 
punishments, or retribution. 

Man is a fallen creature. God made him perfect at 
first ; — perfect, he made man like himself ; — but now, 
man is weak, erring, and sinful. A change has come 
over man, by which the harmony of his physical, men- 
tal, and moral powers is impaired. God gave to man 
perfect qualities, divine and pure ; but now we see man 
plunged into every species of sin and misery. Man 
was made upright, but how has he fallen from his pure 
estate ! Still a free agent, man can be good, but not 
perfect in his present state of discipline. God has 
given us many blessings, and he has placed among our 
faculties conscience, as a guiding principle; but few 
men always go according to the dictates of their con- 
sciences, hence we see moral degradation. 

The Feeling of Moral Approbation.— Attached 

to the exercise of the affections, is this feeling of moral 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 71 

approbation, it is a part of our moral constitution, in- 
tended to bind men together by certain offices of jus- 
tice, friendship, compassion, and conscience, which last 
has been well termed "the voice of God within us." 
Moral approbation is an impression of merit, which is 
frequently attached to the exercise of our affections. 
When a man, without any regard for his own comfort, 
devotes himself to accomplishing a natural impulse, we 
may, or may not, give to his conduct the feeling of 
moral approbation. He acts merely from an inward 
movement, which he perceives to be a part of his con- 
stitution, and he, perhaps, does not think that he de- 
serves any special praise for doing his duty. This 
principle applies to all of the affections in a certain 
degree. 

Youth is the time when the affections are to be 
trained in the proper manner, so that children may 
learn, in early life, to act well their parts, and thus 
receive the moral approbation of God, their fellow-men, 
and their own consciences. 

Happiness Arising from a Due Exercise of 
the Affections. — When we exercise the affections, 
we not only have the satisfaction of knowing that we 
have done our duty, but we feel that we have relieved 
others of their distress, and have thus made them 
happy. This is also obeying God, and the golden rule. 
If we entertain good affections, and use them properly, 
we shall feel contented and happy. True happiness is 
to be obtained, not so much by confining our attention 



72 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

to our own welfare exclusively, but by relieving the 
sufferings and promoting the interests of those by 
whom we are surrounded. Remember, however, that 
it is harder to promote happiness directly, than it is to 
accomplish the same object by relieving distress. 

Children should be shown instances of human want, 
and be allowed to help the afflicted. They should be 
told what one ought to do under such circumstances. 
When grown, a person thus taught will not forget the 
lesson, and whenever brought into contact with such 
cases of misery, he will not withstand the emotions 
which prompt him to lend a helping hand and a 
pitying heart. 

Downward Progress. — The first time that a man 
does anything wrong, he is astonished at himself; but 
he seems to think that he can not improve, and he goes 
from bad to worse, until there is little hope for him, or 
for his reformation. After a while, it becomes as easy 
for him to do a wrong as a right action. But if he had 
resolved, after the first offence, not to do anything else 
that was wrong, he could have stopped his bad career, 
and he would have been pardoned. 

The Influence of Temper.— When we view any 
subject for its truth, or real meaning, our whole mind 
must be in a placid condition. Imagine our feeling of 
sorrow, when wo look upon a person who has none of 
the benevolent or uniting affections, but who is over- 
ruled by anger, jealousy, and resentment. On the con- 



ELEMENTS OE MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 73 

trary, what a constant source of pure enjoyment is a 
meek and quiet spirit ! the desires of which are moder- 
ate and under due regulation, which puts upon every- 
thing the best construction of which it will admit, is 
slow to take offence, seeks no distinction, but views 
itself with humility, and others with candor, benevo- 
lence, and indulgence. Such a disposition makes the 
man happy in himself, and a source of happiness and 
peace to all around him. He loves others, and is him- 
self loved in return. His is an amiable disposition. 

Self-Love. — In one sense, self-love is important, if 
we do not let it run into selfishness. It is desirable 
that we should be good to ourselves, and steadily 
advance towards perfection. 

The Sense in Which Self-Love Is Employed. 

— We use the term self-love to express the good and 
proper regard a person has for himself, which provides 
for his health, comfort, and improvement. Like the 
other mental feelings, self-love is to be considered as a 
part of our moral constitution, and intended to answer 
important purposes, provided it is kept in its proper 
place, and does not encroach upon the duties and affec- 
tions which we owe to society. 

A sound self-love ought to lead us to seek our own 
true happiness, and should prove a check upon those 
appetites and passions which interfere with this; for 
many of them, it must be allow T ed, may be not less 
adverse to our own real interest and comfort, than they 
4 



74 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

are to our duty to other men. We should not only 
avoid everything that is opposed to our own interest, 
but also that which will disturb our peace of mind. 
Self-love, viewed in this manner, appears to be placed 
as a regulating principle among the other powers, much 
inferior to the great principle of conscience, so far as 
regards the moral condition of the individual, but de- 
signed to answer important purposes in promoting the 
harmony of society. 

We may consider among these purposes the pleasure 
belonging to the exercise of our affections themselves, 
a feature of our moral constitution. There is also a 
feeling of dissatisfaction and self-reproach, which fol- 
lows any neglect of a due exercise of the affections, and 
which, in a well-regulated mind, disturbs the mental 
tranquillity fully as much as the disapprobation of 
other men does. 

It is farther evident that a man of badly regulated 
affections destroys his own peace, damages his health, 
and often causes his premature death. There is not, 
perhaps, a state of more intense suffering than when 
the depraved heart, disappointed in those gratifications 
to which it is enslaved, and shut up from the excite- 
ment by which it seeks to escape from the horrors of 
reflection, is thrown back upon itself to be its own 
tormentor. 

Self-Love Compared with Selfishness.— Ac- 
cording to our use of the terms, self-love is right, but 
Belfishness is wrong. We are to have enough love and 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 75 

respect for our characters to protect them from injury, 
and not allow ourselves to be imposed upon by any 
one ; we should consult our own happiness to a certain 
extent, without being selfish. But whenever w r e go to 
the extreme, and do nothing unless it will materially 
assist our individual power, wealth, and advantage, it 
is no longer self-love, but selfishness. The motive 
gives moral quality to an action. 

Remarks. — Self-love is one of the affections, and is 
possessed by everybody to some extent; all strive to 
promote their own pleasure and interest before that of 
any one else, unless they have by experience learned to 
modify such conduct. Some persons are so anxious 
for their own pleasure, and care so little about that of 
others, that they in many instances materially injure 
near and dear friends. 

When self-love has long held complete control of a 
man, he grows selfish, and cares for nothing but him- 
self. He will even sacrifice the lives of persons in dis- 
tress, when it is in his power to aid them. Selfishness 
is one of the most detestable traits that a man can pos- 
sess. A selfish person causes his friends to dislike him ; 
and often, in a struggle to enhance his interest, he goes 
so far as to risk his own safety, while he is endangering 
that of others. 

The Tendency of Self-Love.— A true and ra- 
tional self-love leads us to the improvement of our 
minds; it makes us prudent about our words and ac- 



76 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

tions, while we are striving to obtain health, wisdom, 
and goodness. It makes us thoughtful about what 
people say of us ; because we are anxious for our fellow- 
beings to love us. Rational self-love is improving, 
while it is kept within the limits of moderation; but 
when given a free rein, it becomes a curse rather than 
a blessing ; its proper tendency is thus misdirected. 
Under these circumstances, it leads us to resort to any 
means for the attainment of an object, regardless of the 
consequence, and the resulting selfishness is a cause of 
great misery. 

The man who is so engrossed with self, encased, as 
it were, in armor against the distresses of the poor, and 
utterly oblivious to everything that does not affect his 
own interest or pleasure, is he in whom selfishness has 
been allowed to assert a controlling power. Generosity, 
on the other hand, is a beautiful trait of character, 
which is eminently worthy of due cultivation. 

Selfishness. — When the principle of self-love be- 
comes deranged or excessive in its exercise, it leads to 
those habits by which a man seeks his own gratifica- 
tion. If any of his business is connected with his 
neighbor, whenever it suits him to change it in any 
way, he thinks but little, except of his own conve- 
nience, and probably puts his neighbor to much trou- 
ble. This he may do by an undue pursuit of any of 
the desires ; avarice, ambition, or even the love of 
knowledge itself may be so indulged as to assume the 
same character. But a man of this kind often seeks 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 77 

the applause of the public, from whom he expects to 
derive some personal benefit or advantage. Heuce we 
place much more value upon anything that we know 
to be done by a free good-will than upon what is done 
in a selfish manner. Generous conduct commands the 
approbation of all men, and it is striking to remark 
how, in the highest conception of such a character that 
fancy can delineate, we are met by the sublime morality 
of the sacred writings, impressed upon us by the purest 
motives. 

Disinterested Conduct and Self-Denial. — As 
the principle of self-love is distorted in its aims and 
action, it leads to those habits by w T hich a man strives 
after his own pleasure in a way which interferes with 
his personal and social obligations. The doctrine of 
self-denial was taught by the ancient Stoics, and it 
occupies a prominent place in Christianity, where we 
are taught to forgive those who injure us, to love our 
enemies, to bless those who curse us, and to pray for 
those who despitefully use us and persecute us ; thus 
we are taught to deny ourselves. 

Deeds of kindness may be misdirected and carried to 
excess, when they are merely performed for the ap- 
plause of the world, or for the approbation of some 
particular person from whom one expects to receive a 
rew T ard. But the noblest pattern of disinterested con- 
duct and self-denial may be found in the sacred writ- 
ings, and it is recorded there for our imitation. Unless 
we draw our hearts from selfish things, we can not 



T8 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

hear the music of angelic choirs, attuned to that great 
harp whose countless strings are swept by the hand 
divine. Then, let us cultivate generosity, kindness, 
and forbearance. This course of action is impressed 
upon us through the purest and the most exalted mo- 
tives, the imitation of Him who is the giver of all good. 
We are instructed to imitate our divine Exemplar, so 
that we may be the children of our Father, who is in 
heaven; for he makes his sun to rise on the evil and 
on the good; and he bestows his refreshing showers 
upon the just as well as upon the unjust. His mercy 
is so great that it blesses the righteous and extends to 
the wicked. Love is the fulfilling of the law, and men 
are commanded to love one another. 

Observations. — Taking a review of self-denial, we 
see that it is directly opposed to selfishness. It con- 
sists in abstaining from comforts and enjoyments, in 
order to promote our ^happiness and that of others. 
One may deny himself a great many things to gain the 
good-will of another, yet this is self-interest. But 
when a man practises self-denial in order to give pleas- 
ure to others, even when he knows that he will receive 
nothing for it in return, he deserves credit, while his 
conduct is worthy of sincere regard and imitation. 



CHAPTER IX. 

The Will— Volition— Moral Causes— Their Nature- 
Uniformity op Moral Relations — Knowledge — At- 
tention — Moral Habits — Habits and Character — 
Correcting Injurious Habits — Conclusions — Divine 
Assistance — Its Necessity and Probability— Faith- 
Illustration. 

The Will is a great feature in human character. 
A moral man wills to do what is right, because it is 
right; a religious man does what is right, because it is 
the will of God. 

Will is one of the principles which constitute man as 
a moral being, one who is responsible for his actions. 
It is that which determines man's conduct. When he 
wills an act, it will most certainly follow, if not re- 
strained by some outside influence ; or the deed will be 
prevented, if the man is incapable of performing it. 
These are the things which can prevent a man from 
following his will. A great many persons are proud of 
their wills, and take pleasure in them. Truly, it is an 
excellent thing to have a will of your own; but still 
more so, if you have judgment and discretion in exer- 
cising it; and while thus engaged, one should never be 
so narrow-minded as to forget the interests of others. 



80 ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 

We must will a thing before we can succeed in ac- 
complishing it; and though, at first, it may seem diffi- 
cult to do, yet if our will is strong enough, we shall 
succeed in our undertaking. The objects which belong 
to the will, maybe divided into two classes; namely, 
things to be obtained, and actions to be performed to- 
wards members of the human family. The will should 
be trained in childhood, so that, in after years, it may 
not be unrestrained, and prove a disadvantage to its 
owner. 

Actions produced by the will arise out of the mental 
emotions formerly treated of, — the desires and the 
affections ; the next mental act, according to the reg- 
ular course of a reflecting mind, is proposing to our- 
selves the question, Shall we gratify the desire ? or 
shall we exercise the affection? Then follows the 
process of considering or deliberating. 

Simple Volition.— We have said that simple voli- 
tion, or the act of willing, has its origin from the de- 
sires or affections. We see, perhaps, a variety of con- 
siderations or inducements, some of which are in favor 
of gratifying the desire or exercising the affection, while 
others are opposed to it. Without intellect there is no 
light, and without sensibility there is no motive. As 
distinguished from mere impulse, rational will involves 
rational choice; but without the intellect there can be 
no rationality, and without the sensibility there can be 
nothing to choose. With these we have all that we 
need, not as a cause, but as a condition for the will. 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 81 

"We desire an object, or we experience an affection ; 
the next mental act, according to a well-regulated and 
reflective mind, is to inquire whether we shall gratify 
this desire or affection; then we must look at both sides 
of the question, seeing the way in which it will be of 
any advantage to us, and also its disadvantages, from 
which we can make our decision. This last act of the 
mind is what we call will, or simple volition. Then, 
if we will to do anything, the act will be done ; and if 
we will not to perform it, the act will be left undone, 
unless the will is overcome. 

The Operation of Moral Causes.— For the 

operation of moral causes upon the will, certain cir- 
cumstances are required of the individual, upon whom 
they are expected to exert their power. It is necessary 
that we should have a knowledge of our moral condi- 
tion ; and that the truths may be presented to us in 
such a manner that we shall fully comprehend them, 
we must ourselves be in a perfect state of moral feeling. 
We can generally tell what effect a tale of distress will 
have upon any person, just from our knowledge of his 
moral feelings. 

The Nature of Moral Causes.— In studying 
the nature of moral causes, we are led to notice the 
diversity of their operation in different individuals. 
When a person is deliberating whether he will perform 
an act, certain motives are brought into view, and they 
are known as moral causes. It is the nature of moral 



82 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

causes to determine whether or not the deed shall be 
performed. Self-love is a moral cause ; for if the act 
should require too much exertion, or self-denial, it 
would tend to keep us from doing the deed. 

We feel under certain obligations to some persons, 
and if our conduct opposes their interest, it restrains 
us from our purpose. Another moral cause is judg- 
ment, which shows us the effect of a certain act. Still 
another moral cause is the feeling of duty, which com- 
pels us to go forward. We thus see people act from 
different motives. One acts in the way by which he 
will acquire influence, or gain advantage. Another 
person will sometimes act in one way, and sometimes 
in another way. Yet another will always do right, 
regardless of consequences. 

We can always tell what the conduct of the first and 
third of these persons will be, but we can not foretell 
about the second. The causes of this diversity are 
referable to attention, to knowledge, and to moral 
habits. The first, attention, exercises a great influence. 
It requires that we should know the import of the facts, 
and see their relation to each other. Knowledge re- 
quires that we should grasp all of the truths, and not 
join two things together as cause and effect, unless 
they really have such a relation. 

So much depends upon the moral habits of a person. 
If he has been doing right all the time, it will be com- 
paratively easy for him to continue in the path of recti- 
tude. But if he has not tried to do right, it will be 
difficult for him to do so without a special effort. Upon 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 83 

a person whose moral habits are correct, moral causes 
will act. Moral causes resemble physical causes in 
requiring certain conditions for their operation. 

Uniformity of Moral Relations. — TTe have every 
reason to believe that there are moral causes, which 
have a tendency to influence the volition and the con- 
duct in the same manner that chemical agents affect 
each other. These moral causes do not act all the 
time, but we receive them with the same degree of cer- 
tainty as we do testimony. The moral causes act in 
the same manner as two chemical substances ; they 
must first be brought together, before they can act. 
Sometimes we depend upon this uniformity altogether, 
and in other cases, we only rely upon it to a certain 
extent. 

Knowledge. — A primary and essential element, in 
the due regulation of the will, is a correct knowledge 
of truths and motives, which tend to influence its de- 
termination. The highest of these comprehends the 
truths of religious belief, a series of moral causes, the 
tendencies of which are of the most important kind, 
calculated to exert a uniform power over every man, 
who surrenders himself to their guidance. 

For this purpose, a correct knowledge of these truths 
and motives is required, and all who have this knowl- 
edge within their reach, acquire a deep moral responsi- 
bility for their conduct. From nature and revelation 
we may derive a knowledge of the character of Deity. 



84 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Without knowledge, we should not expect moral causes 
to act. For instance, a man must know what his duty- 
is, before he can reduce it to practice. Hence arises 
the importance of moral and religious instruction. 

Attention. — A very important question, morally, is 
strict attention, so as to bring ethical ideas together in 
the proper way. If a man will honestly attend to his 
own affairs, in the course of time, he will be decidedly 
improved. When a particular subject is present to his 
mind, he has the power to decide whether or not he 
can be influenced by it, and also to determine whether 
or not that can guide him. If, by this, the inclination 
is condemned, a sound mind soon dismisses it, and the 
moral state is retained in a healthful condition. 

This, however, may be neglected, and something else 
may occupy the mind ; it may not be exercised in the 
correct way, or the man may become careless. And if 
the truth is not properly received, the mental action is 
destroyed, and so is purity of heart. The habits that 
are thus welcomed, soon acquire great control over a 
person's feelings. Inattention is indulged so much 
that it becomes a habit, and the unfortunate man is 
carried away by passion. Then good feelings are grad- 
ually weakened, and soon destroyed, in such a condition 
of the moral powers. 

Moral Habits. — A condition in which a desire or 
an affection, repeatedly acted upon, is, after each repeti- 
tion, acted upon with less effort, is a moral habit. In 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 85 

the same way, when a truth or moral principle has 
been passed over, time and again, without any ade- 
quate attention, each time it makes less and less im- 
pression, until at length, it ceases to exert any influence 
over the moral feelings or actions. 

That conduct which follows sympathy and benevo- 
lence, at first, requires some effort, but after each repe- 
tition, it becomes easier, until, at last, habits of active 
benevolence are formed. It is the same way with 
habits of vice. 

The Influence of Habits upon Character. — 

Important is the truth about habit, that it deserves 
constant and deep attention ; for character consists, in 
a great measure, of habits. These habits arise out of 
individual acts and repeated operations of the mind. 
Thus, we may hear of a man who swears that he will 
abandon intoxicants for a certain number of years, and 
probably the very same man will be found in a state of 
inebriation the next day. Or the habit may be sus- 
pended by the influence of an oath ; but the desire re- 
mains unsubdued, and resumes its former power, when- 
ever this artificial restraint is withdrawn. The effect 
is the same as if the man had been in confinement 
during the time, or had been kept from his indulgence 
by some other restraint, entirely of an external kind. 
The gratification was prevented, but his moral nature 
was unchanged. 

Habit is at first like a spider's web, which may be 
brushed away; but, after long' indulgence, it becomes 



86 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 

like a strong cable, binding its unhappy victim hand 
and foot, conquering the will, and making reformation 
almost impossible. On the other hand, benevolent 
conduct, at first, may require a certain effort, and is 
accompanied by a strong feeling of the emotion which 
leads to it. But after each repetition the acts go on 
with less feeling of the emotion, while there is pro- 
gressively forming the habit of active benevolence. 

Attention has much to do with the formation of 
character, and habit is next in order ; for after we have 
practised any action for a while, it becomes so easy 
that it is called secoud nature, and we delight in it. 
What may at first seem difficult to perform, after con- 
stant attention and practice, becomes a habit. It is no 
difficult matter to fall into degenerating habits ; but after 
we have engaged in elevating pursuits, they are quite 
easy ; consequently, our good habits form good character. 

It is precisely the same with habits of vice. At first 
a deed requires an effort and a powerful contest with 
moral principles ; then it is speedily followed by that 
feeling of regret, to which superficial observers give the 
name of repentance. This is the voice of conscience ; 
but its power is more and more diminished after each 
repetition of the deed. Even the judgment becomes 
perverted respecting the great principles of moral recti- 
tude ; and acts, which at first caused a violent conflict, 
are committed without remorse. 

Means of Correcting Injurious Habits.— The 

best way of correcting injurious habits is, first, to 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 87 

let conscience have entire control over the morals, and 
to act in accordance with its promptings. When we are 
just ready to perform a deed, let us ask ourselves, Is it 
right? or is it wrong? and conscience will give the 
correct answer. It depends, however, upon whether or 
not we have become so hardened by allowing the pas- 
sions to rule over us, that the dictates of conscience 
may not have any influence over our behavior. Then 
we must harmonize the affections and desires. We shall 
think for a long while that it is impossible for us to 
become good, but in the end perseverance will conquer. 

Conclusions. — There are some practical conclusions 
which arise from the principles of moral habits. By 
our moral habits we are brought into close relation to 
the Divine Being, and here we learn the lesson of obedi- 
ence. If we are under this influence, we are more 
affectionate to humanity, and more ready to forgive an 
injury done us, than we should be otherwise. It is of 
great moment that we should have moral influences 
thrown around us, in order to develop moral character. 
Our associates should be known to possess moral char- 
acter. We may not be able to make a fortune, or to 
occupy a place of high distinction, but we can be good, 
and it is within our power to improve our moral con- 
dition. 

Divine Assistance. — Without divine aid we can 
not correct the moral derangement, when our soul or 
conscience tells of our error. God can correct it, and 



88 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

if we ask him to do so, he will answer us by granting 
our request, for he has said, " Seek, and ye shall find ; 
ask, and it shall be given unto you." 

The Necessity and Probability of Divine Aid. 

— There is no improbability that the Holy One does 
hold communication with the soul, and impart an 
influence in the hour of its deepest need. In accord- 
ance with our highest conceptions, man is among the 
greatest of his works. We contemplate the moral prin- 
ciple as an emanation from the Deity. We know that 
God's eye reaches the inmost movements of our souls, 
and every thing is exposed to his view. He knows all 
things. When our affections are wandering away from 
him, he looks down upon them, and has compassion 
upon us as a father pities his son. 

Upon every sound principle of philosophy, all things 
must be open to God's inspection. When the spirit 
tries to throw off its earthy bondage, and strives to con- 
form its will to that of the Deity, then God affords his 
assistance. In all such instances, we can not believe it 
to be otherwise. It is impossible for us to believe that 
all things could go on without his aid. God is every- 
where, looking upon us. He has the powder and will- 
ingness to impart to us the aid which w 7 e require. 

Faith. — Now we come to study the influence of that 
mental power which is called faith. There is a power 
in (he mind itself which is calculated to drawdown 
upon it an influence of the most efficient kind. This 






ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 89 

is produced by the mental process called faith. Sup- 
pose that we have a friend who is very intelligent and 
virtuous, and who has a great influence over us ; he 
excites us to good conduct, and elevates our character 
by example and precept. If we are removed from this 
cherished friend, we often think of his influence. Faith 
causes us to look upon God. as our best friend, and it 
inculcates upon us humble obedience to His righteous 
commands. 

Circumstances of difficulty and danger occur, in 
which we feel the want of a guide and counsellor. In 
the reflections to which the situation naturally gives 
rise, the image of our friend is brought before us, an 
influence is conveyed, like that which was often pro- 
duced by his presence and his advice. Then we feel 
as if he were actually present to give us his counsel 
and notice our behavior. This impression will be 
greatly strengthened, if we can think that this absent 
friend is able to communicate with us. Such is the 
intercourse of the soul with God. He is present with 
the mind when, in any situation of duty, distress, or 
discipline, the man under this exercise of faith, realizes 
the presence and character of the Deity. 

Illustration. — When we ask for something, and con- 
fidently expect to receive it, we call that faith. We are 
told that through faith we are saved. There is a good 
illustration of this in the case of the woman who lived 
near the wall of Jericho. It was through her faith that 
she was saved. 



CHAPTER X. 

Conscience—Its Functions— Proofs of the Existence of 
Conscience— The Nature of its Operation— Observa- 
tions — Conscience and Reason— How Conscience Acts 
—A Portion of God's Spirit— Right and Wrong— The 
Influence of Conscience — Knowledge Derived from 
Conscience — Divine Attributes Compared with the 
State of Man — The Christian Revelation — Impaired 
Conscience — Its Influence — Attention — Responsibil- 
ity for Belief — Moral Emotions and Intellectual 
Processes — Harmony. 

Conscience appears in connection with our moral 
choices. Having a moral nature, we might judge cor- 
rectly of the moral conduct of others, hut that would 
not be conscience. But couscience is our moral con- 
sciousness; not our outward acts, but our choices. It 
is at work previous to choice, affirming obligation to 
choose in accordance with that which is highest; and 
after choice it gives us, in connection with the ideas of 
merit and demerit, the feelings of self-approbation, as 
well as of guilt and remorse. 

The moral principle is conscience. The active prin- 
ciples of man are those which decide his conduct as a 
moral being. There is also a class of feelings, which 
may be called passive or connecting emotions. Con- 



ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 91 

science, like consciousness, is a knowing with. We 
know our choices, and together with the knowledge of 
them we have through conscience a knowledge of their 
moral quality, and so a judgment concerning them. It 
is therefore strictly personal, and resembles the tribunal 
of God in judging of choices and motives. Its precise 
nature and office are given by the Apostle Paul when 
he says: "For when the Gentiles, which have not the 
law, do by nature the things contained in the law, these 
having not the law, are a law unto themselves. Which 
show the work of the law written in their hearts, their 
conscience also bearing witness, and their thoughts the 
meanwhile accusing or else excusing one another." 

When we arrive at such a point as to leave no doubt 
of our obtaining an object of our desires, this is called 
confidence; it is one of the elements of faith. If we see 
no opportunity of obtaining what is desired, it is called 
despair, and this leads us to abandon the pursuit. If 
we obtain the object, we feel a thrill of pleasure or joy. 
When we do not gain what we are seeking, we feel a 
regret. 

If some danger threatens us, we experience a feeling 
of fear, and we exert ourselves to avert it ; if we suc- 
ceed in overcoming the danger, we experience satisfac- 
tion, but if we do not succeed, we have a feeling of 
sorrow. If the danger seems unavoidable, we suffer 
from a feeling of despair. Again, when we have acted 
according to the dictates of conscience, we rejoice in 
the feeling of self-approbation. Law is one thing and 
conscience is another. 



92 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Without arguing about the propriety of speaking 
of a separate power or principle, we simply contend 
that there is a certain mental exercise by which we 
can feel actions to be right or wrong. This is termed 
conscience. Our conscience is an element of our 
moral nature, which may admit of no explanation, 
and is referable to no other principle than a simple 
recognition of the facts which force themselves upon 
the conviction of every man, who looks into the pro- 
cesses of his own soul. 

Of the nature of this most important element, con- 
science, the evidence is entirely within. We appeal to 
the consciousness of every man, that he perceives a 
power which, in particular cases, warns him of the 
conduct that he ought to pursue, and administers a 
solemn warning when he has departed from the path 
of rectitude. We look to every one's conscience for the 
real proof of its existence. If a man does a great 
crime, he can always feel perfectly sure in his own 
mind that he is guilty, as his conscience decides this 
question at once. His judgment also conveys to him 
an impression, both of the tendencies and certain qual- 
ities of actions, though this may be without regard to 
their final consequences. 

The Function of Conscience. — Conscience gives 
us a perception of the nature and quality of actions, as 
just or unjust, right or wrong, and a conviction of the 
duties which a man owes to other men. Conscience is 
the moral principle. If we listen to it, and go accord- 



ELEMENTS OE MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 03 

ing to conscience, we shall have an infallible guide, as 
a son Las the counsel of his father. Although the voice 
of conscience is inaudible to the outward ear, we feel 
it saying to us, This is the right wa} 7 , walk in it. Con- 
science, therefore, should regulate our actions. 

Proofs of Conscience. — That there are certain 
proofs of the existence of conscience as a distinct prin- 
ciple of our moral constitution, will scarcely be denied. 
Of the existence and nature of this principle, the evi- 
dence is within ourselves. The law is a law within us, 
by which we become a law to ourselves. It is a fact that 
there is a moral exercise, by which we feel certain ac- 
tions to be right, and others to be wrong. It is an 
element of our moral nature which admits of no 
analysis. 

Conscience is present affirming obligation, and en- 
abling us to judge generally of moral subjects, while in 
its relations to us personally, and when we come to act, 
this same moral nature becomes conscience, and bears 
witness to the moral quality of our choices, and either 
accuses or excuses us for what we do. Conscience con- 
veys to every one a conviction of what is morally right 
and wrong, in regard to individual conduct, and con- 
cerning the general exercise of the desires and affec- 
tions. It does this without acquired knowledge, and 
without reference to any other standard of duty. 

To act under the influence of conscience is to per- 
form deeds simply because we feel them to be right, 
and to abstain from others, because we feel that they 



94 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

are wrong, without regard to any other impression, or 
to the consequences of the actions, either to ourselves 
or to others. 

He who, on this principle, performs an action, though 
it may be highly disagreeable to him, or abstains from 
another, though it may be desirable, is a conscientious 
man. The acts are done by the man, the bearing wit- 
ness, the accusing and excusing are done by the con- 
science. We know our choices, and also whether they 
are or are not in accordance with what we believe obli- 
gation requires. It is to this last that conscience 
witnesses, and then either excuses or accuses us. 

We can define conscience as an inward feeling, which 
renders us capable of discerning right from wrong. 
This conviction is forced upon every man who looks 
into the recesses of his own soul. In many instances 
we perceive a warning appeal from conscience that our 
conduct is straying from the true path, and that feel- 
ing imparts to us a solemn admonition to pursue the 
good way that it dictates. Thus conscience gives man 
a moral conviction. To be governed by it, is simply to 
perform an action because it is strictly right, and to 
abstain from actions, because we feel them to be wrong, 
however desirable they may seem to the promotion of 
our happiness. 

Thus, under the influence of habit, we are governed 
by the suggestion of conscience, and freed from those 
propensities which oppose it. Conscience occupies a 
place among our moral powers like that which reason 
holds with regard to the intellectual faculties. Con- 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 



95 



science may be at' variance with circumstances, but it 
is always ready to dictate, and is truly the regulating 
power that acts upon the desires and affections, as 
reason acts upon a series of facts, preserving their har- 
mony and order. 

Conscience represses our selfish propensities, leading 
us to the proper view of our interest, and the duty we 
owe our fellow-mortals. When conscience is disre- 
garded, self-love assumes control, selfish gratifications 
are indulged without restraint, and thus our moment- 
ary impulses are acted upon, without regard to their 
future results. 

It is improper to say that a man is conscientious 
when he does not act as his conscience prompts him. 
But if a man does as his moral principle directs him, 
regardless of apparent personal interests, then he is 
indeed worthy to be called a conscientious person. 
Conscience is God's judge placed within us, to control 
our actions. If Ave heed its promptings, we shall do 
our duty. 



Observations. — Our conscience is a natural guide to 
us, in every situation of life in which we may be placed. 
Some persons do that which they believe to be right, 
while others think that it is wrong. And sometimes 
conscience tells us that certain things are wrong, while 
the law does not censure them. We may, for instance, 
mention a person who has been educated among the 
Catholics, and has been taught that it is wrong to eat 
meat during Lent. He says that his conscience tells 



90 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

him that it is wrong. Another person, who has been 
trained among Protestants, was taught that it is right 
to eat meat during the whole year, and so he believes. 

Conscience and Reason. — There is an analogy 
between conscience and reason. What would this 
world be, if mankind did not have a conscientious 
knowledge of right and wrong ? — if a man could do 
everything he wished to do, without that feeling which 
now and then tells him that he has done wrong ? 
Eeason is a great power, and without it a person can 
not accomplish much. But taking them both to- 
gether, we think that conscience is the highest faculty 
of man. 

After all, however, we conclude that reason and con- 
science resemble each other, that they are governing 
principles in their respective spheres or domains. If 
we were to train ourselves to it, conscientious obedience 
would soon become habitual with us, and we should be 
freer and freer from every feeling and propensity which 
is opposed to conscience. There is a close analogy 
between conscience and reason. When we look at 
them in this light, it makes them both appear more 
beautiful. 

The office of conscience is different from that as- 
signed to it by Mr. Martineau. He says that "when 
the whole series of springs of action has been experi- 
enced, the feeling or 'knowledge with ourselves' of 
their relative rank constitutes the individual con- 
science." But this seems to he merely preliminary, 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 



97 



and not the action of conscience at all. Let a man 
judge as he may of the springs of action, there is no 
accusing or excusing connected with it. He judges of 
them as of other things. 

How Conscience Acts. — Conscience tells us with 
correctness when a thing is right or wrong, just or un- 
just ; it does not require a long process of reasoning; 
for conscience immediately decides. Every man must 
know whether he chooses and acts in accordance with 
his sense of obligation. Mr. Martineau places the 
office of conscience at a point where we judge of 
springs of action. But we place it at the point where 
we judge of our choices as conformed or not conformed 
to the sense of obligation. In his view it has nothing 
to do with the will ; in our view it respects the action 
of the will. 

A Portion of God's Spirit. — By some writers, 
conscience is said to be a portion of the spirit of God 
placed within us. Consequently, we can see the near 
relation in which we stand towards the Deity. All 
persons, whether they are educated or not, are governed 
by conscience. A man may be degraded, yet con- 
science still asserts its power over him ; he may, how- 
ever, refuse to listen to conscience until its warning 
produces little effect. 



Right and Wrong. — If a human being experiences 
any doubt whether he will be justified in performing a 
5 



98 ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 

certain deed, he first asks himself whether it is right or 
wrong ; and if he decides that it is right, then be per- 
forms the deed. Taking cognizance only of choices 
and motives, the judgment of conscience has nothing 
to do with means, or opportunity, or outward failure or 
success; and if we deal honestly with it, conscience 
will anticipate and accord with the judgment of God. 

The Influence of Conscience.— Conveying an 

impression of the moral attributes of the Deity, con- 
science has a great influence, and this is magnified 
when it is taken in combination with reason. When 
the conscience is taken as our guide, we see how every 
thing was made for our good, how thankful we should 
be for it, and what is best suited to us as rational and 
accountable beings. The conscience should be obeyed. 
It is given in connection with a choice which deter- 
mines the drift of character. 

Knowledge Derived from Conscience.— In a 

moral being, conscience seems to occupy the same 
place that reason does in an intellectual person. It is 
the ruler. There have been some writers who denied 
the existence of such a principle ; but for proof of its 
existence, we need only ask any honest man if there is 
not something which tells him that there are certain 
acts which are right, and others which are wrong. 
The province of conscience is to show us how to act, 
in all of our undertakings. By conscience we learn 
that there are certain duties that we owe to others ; 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 99 

such as, justice and veracity. We learn that we are 
responsible beings, and must render an account of 
ourselves. 

Farther, we learn that we are, to a certain extent, 
accountable for the moral condition of those by whom 
we are immediately surrounded. Again, we learn that 
we must make our passions yield to the authority of 
the moral principle. It not only teaches us of our 
relation to the human race, but conscience also teaches 
us about our divine Creator. 

Combined with reason, conscience teaches us that 
there is a God. We look at the phenomena of nature, 
and form a notion of the Great First Cause. He has 
given us principles of veracity, justice, and benevolence ; 
consequently, we infer that he possesses these attributes 
in the state of perfection. Conscience is the regulating 
principle, and if we always follow its dictates, we shall 
reach the highest moral condition which it is possi- 
ble for a human being in this state of discipline to 
attain. 

Comparison of the Divine Attributes with 
the State of Man. — By a simple step of reasoning, 
which conveys an impression of absolute conviction, we 
conclude that He who formed us with these feelings, 
possesses in his own character corresponding moral 
attributes, which, while they resemble in kind, must 
infinitely exceed in degree those qualities in the wisest 
and best of men. In our actual observation of man- 
kind, we see these attributes impaired in their exercise 



100 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

by human weakness, distorted by human passion, and 
impeded in their operation by personal wants and sel- 
fish interests. 

Therefore, we conclude that the Almighty is perfect 
in the exercise of all moral attributes, and that he takes 
the most rigid estimate of any infringement of them 
by men. As we view such a Being, apart from any 
inferior creature, all seems harmony; we have only to 
contemplate him as high and holy, enjoying perfect 
happiness in his own spotless attributes. But when 
we view him in relation to man, in that state tainted 
deeply with moral evil, a difficulty of an appalling 
magnitude arises. 

There is ample scope now, we perceive, for the exer- 
cise of the supreme holiness and veracity; so God ap- 
pears with sublime majesty, in his exalted character as 
the moral Governor of the universe, full of mercy and 
forgiveness. In a moral Governor of infinite perfec- 
tion, there can be neither ignorance of facts nor change 
of purpose. 

Difficulties. — All difficulties which arise from the 
foregoing comparison are removed by the Christian 
revelation. The soundest inductions of philosophy 
applied to the actual state of man, bring us to this 
momentous conclusion ; but the highest efforts of 
human science fail to reconcile justice with mercy. It 
is in our utmost need that we are met by the dictates 
of revelation, and we are called upon to humble the 
pride of human reason before that display of the har- 






ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 101 

mony and integrity of the divine character. We there 
learn truths far beyond the inductions of human 
science, and the utmost reaches of human thought; 
that an atonement between God and man is made, a 
sacrifice is offered and accepted; and that the exercise 
of forgiveness is consistent with the perfections of the 
Deity. 

Thus, by a process of the mind itself, which seems 
to present every element of fair and logical exactness, 
we arrive at a full conviction of the necessity and 
the moral probability of that truth, which forms the 
great peculiarity of the Christian revelation. These 
facts are impressed upon us with renewed power, 
when we fix our attention upon them in all of their 
bearings. 

The truths which are revealed to the Christian, show 
him that there is a Being of infinite wisdom and purity ; 
also that man is a poor, weak, and sinful creature. 
But men, who know nothing of practical religion, 
think that they are perfect, and thus they deceive 
themselves. 

Impaired Conscience. — A mental process has been 
observed, by which the regulating power of conscience 
is impaired or lost. When we endeavor to trace the 
manner in which men have departed so widely from 
the high pattern of perfection, we arrive at moral 
phenomena, of which we can offer no explanation. A 
problem of greater importance, is to mark the process 
by which conscience ceases to be the regulating prin- 



102 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

ciple of the character, and this is a simple and legiti- 
mate object of philosophical observation. 

Indeed, we can view it only as a matter of fact, with- 
out being able to refer it to any special principle. The 
fact to which we allude is a certain relation between 
the truths which are designed to act upon us as moral 
causes, and the mental emotions which ought to result 
from them. If the due harmony between these truths 
and emotions is patiently cultivated, the result is a 
sound moral condition. But every time this harmony 
is violated, a morbid influence is introduced, which 
gains strength in each succeeding violation. 

If this tendency of the emotions is diligently ob- 
served, that is, if the emotion of compassion is properly 
cultivated, for instance, the result is active benevo- 
lence; but if the emotion is violated, its influence is 
diminished, and a character of cold, barren selfishness 
is produced. We should always pay careful and strict 
attention to conscience, and then it is sure to guide 
and direct us in the right way. 

The Influence of Impaired Conscience.— This 

influence acting upon the judgment in regard to moral 
truth, consists in a distortion of the understanding 
itself regarding the first great moral principles. Con- 
science being dethroned, there next arises a desire to 
discover a view of things more in accordance with the 
corrupt feelings. This is followed by a corresponding 
train of reflections opposed to the truth. This process, 
advancing step by step, terminates in moral anarchy. 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 103 

Attention. — Moral decision is greatly influenced by 
attention. Before the decision is made in regard to a 
subject, we should always listen attentively to both 
sides of the question, and then form our conclusion. 
We should not allow prejudice, money, or friendship to 
pervert our decision, but we should act with justice. 
Besides, we should not form our opinions too hastily, 
but take the necessary time to give each sound argu- 
ment its due consideration. Mistakes in judgment are 
easily made, but they are not always so easily corrected. 

Responsibility for Belief. — Man is responsible 
for his belief. If he could not distinguish the right 
from the wrong, and had no possible means of finding 
out the truth, then he would not be held accountable. 
His belief is influenced very much by education and 
circumstances; but, by the assistance of his own reason 
and conccience, man can establish belief of the truth, 
and for this he is responsible. Of course, this process 
belongs to a sane mind and a sound moral constitution. 

When the truth is presented, we have the power to 
accept it or to reject it. If the will were restrained 
here by necessity, man would be little more than a ma- 
chine. Freedom of choice, however, belongs to man, 
and hence he is responsible, not only for his beliefs, but 
also for his thoughts, his words, and his actions. 

Moral Emotions and Intellectual Processes. 

— Between the moral emotions and the voluntary intel- 
lectual processes, there exists an important relation. 



104 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

These emotions are, properly speaking, not the objects 
of will or volition, nor do they arise directly at our 
bidding, but according to our constitution. They are 
the natural or established result of certain intellectual 
processes, and in one sense, they are the actions of our- 
selves, and are voluntary. The emotions of compassion 
and benevolence, for example, are the natural result 
of the sight, or even the description of distress, and the 
primary steps of this process are entirely within our 
power to perform them, if we will. 

We can visit the afflicted family, listen to their tale 
of distress, and consider their circumstances ; that is, 
we can give our attention to them in such a way that 
the natural effect will be produced upon our moral 
feelings. If sympathy does not follow this course, after 
some repetition, it terminates in selfishness. 

Harmony. — By our intellectual powers we receive 
a subject into the mind, and by reasoning we deter- 
mine whether the subject has a true or false foundation, 
and we place it in its true light within our own minds, 
and afterwards in the mind of others. Without justice, 
we should, in all probability, not place this subject in 
its true light, and without truth of purpose, often when 
we know exactly how an affair ought to appear, we 
put it in another light. Without the moral principle, 
our intellectual powers would be unrestrained. Hence 
we discover a beautiful harmony among all of our 
mural and mental powers. 



CHAPTER XI. 

The Origin of Virtue and Vice— Conscience— The Sys- 
tem of Mandeville— Clarke and Wollaston— Utility 
— The Selfish System — Selfishness — Paley's System — 
Defect of Moral Systems— Barbarous Nations— The- 
ory of Sympathy — The Use of Sympathy — Reason in 
Moral Decisions— Corruption of Conscience— Harmony 
of the Moral Feelings — Consistency of Character. 

The Origin of Virtue and Vice.— When we 
contemplate men's actions in relation to each other, we 
pronounce some deeds right and others wrong. We 
first determine what the intentions of the actor were. 
If we find that he intended evil, we blame him ; while, 
on the contrary, if his intentions w r ere good, we praise 
him. There is a line of conduct to which we ourselves 
and others are bound by strong obligation. If we 
observe it, we are virtuous ; if we do not, we are vicious. 
There is a moral principle within each one of us, that 
decides the good or bad quality of an action. 

If we obey conscience, our conduct will be morally 
right; for, at all times, unless it has been debased, it 
dictates to us precisely what our actions ought to be. 
Mr. Hume supports the theory that whatever action is 
useful is virtuous. The objection to this is, that it 



106 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

also applies to inanimate objects. Mr. Hume, in order 
to obviate this difficulty, said that the sense of utility 
must be combined with a feeling of approbation. 

Conscience. — We find the origin of our idea of 
virtue and vice in conscience. A person may be vir- 
tuous while he does not even so much as know the 
meaning of virtue. Conscience has been called the voice 
of God whispering in our souls. We find ourselves in 
the midst of good and evil, but it is our duty to choose 
the good and refuse the evil, knowing that we are 
wrong every time that we go out of the line of conduct 
which conscience indicates. Obeying conscience, we 
know that we are acting in a becoming manner. 

The System of Mandeville.— Mr. Mandeville 
says that man naturally seeks his own gratifications, 
without any regard to the happiness of other men. 
But legislators found that it would be necessary to in- 
duce man in some way to surrender a portion of his 
personal gratification for the good of humanity. Leg- 
islators made certain laws for the general good, and 
they flattered mankind into the belief that it was 
praiseworthy to observe them, and noble to sacrifice a 
certain portion of their own pleasures for the good of 
other persons. 

"What we call virtue," says Mr. Mandeville, "re- 
solves itself into the love of praise." Laws are intended 
for the public good, and while they are in force, it is 
the duty of every good citizen to obey them. But no 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 107 

laws can alter, and no statutes can modify those great 
principles of moral conduct, which are engraved upon 
the consciences of all classes of the human race. Kings 
may make laws, but they can not create virtue. The 
system of Mr. Mandevilie ascribes our impressions of 
moral rectitude entirely to the enactments of law- 
makers. Man, he says, seeks only his gratifications, 
without any regard to the happiness of others. But 
legislators found that it would be necessary to induce 
man in some way to surrender a portion of his gratifi- 
cations for the benefit of others. To do this with any 
degree of success, the legislators were obliged to offer 
man some kind of recompense. This is Mr. Mande- 
ville's theory of morals. 

The System of Clarke and Wollaston. — In a 

theory supported by these eminent men, virtue was 
considered to depend upon a conformity of the conduct 
to a certain sense of the fitness of things, or their truth. 
The meaning of this is rather obscure. It refers the 
essence of virtue to a revelation perceived by the pro- 
cess of reason, with the belief of the impressions being 
universal. It may therefore be held as at variance with 
God's essential attributes, the effect of which is the 
general happiness of his creatures. Whatever is right 
is also expedient for man, but the converse of this 
proposition by no means follows, that what men think 
expedient necessarily comes to be right. According 
to this theory, virtue was considered to depend upon 
an agreement of the conduct with a certain sense of 



108 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

the fitness of things, or the truth of things. We are at 
a loss to understand the meaning of this definition ; 
but it does not imply that the essence of virtue is 
universal. 

The System of Utility.— This theory of morals 
is supported by Mr. David Hume. In accordance with 
it, we estimate the virtue of an action and an agent 
entirely by their usefulness. This is objected to on 
the ground already stated, that it holds good for both 
animate and inanimate beings. This theory holds that 
every thing which is expedient is right, and that all 
things which are right must be expedient. Partly this 
is so. Every thing that is right is expedient, but every 
thing that is expedient is not always right. It was, 
however, ably supported by Mr. Hume. 

According to this theory of utility, as advocated by 
Mr. Hume, we determine the value or virtue of an 
action, as well as of an agent, by the principle of their 
usefulness. Mr. Hume refers all of our mental impres- 
sions to the two principles of reason and taste. Reason 
here is the knowledge of truth and falsehood. Taste 
gives an impression of pleasure or pain, and becomes a 
motive of action, while reason does not thus act. 

An obvious objection to the doctrine of utility is, 
that it might be applied to a printing-press, as well as 
to a meritorious person. To obviate this objection, 
Mr. Hume was driven to a distinction, which, in fact, 
amounted to giving up the argument, that the sense 
of utility must be combined with a feeling of approba- 






ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 109 

tion. This leads us back to the previous question, on 
what the feeling of approbation is founded. 

This important distinction has been well stated by 
Professor Mills of Oxford. He defines morality to be 
"an obedience to the law and constitution of man's 
nature, assigned him by the Deity, in conformity with 
his own essential attributes, the effect of which is the 
general happiness of his creatures." To the theory of 
taste, Mr. Hume refers our impressions of beauty and 
deformity, vice and virtue. His definition of right 
resolves itself into the impression of usefulness. 

The Selfish System. — The selfish system of 
morals, according to the statement of its advocates, is 
a desire to promote man's own interest. This theory 
has appeared from an early period, in the history of 
moral science, in various forms. Mr. Hobbes was the 
most remarkable promoter of it in modern times. Ac- 
cording to his doctrine, man is influenced entirely to 
promote his own interest ; and that which does so, he 
considers as right, and that which does not, as wrong. 
That which is supposed, may be considered as con- 
tradicted by facts ; for even in our own experience, the 
pleasure that attends an act of kindness in ourselves, 
as well as our approbation of it in others, is diminished 
by the impression that there is a selfish purpose to be 
answered by the action. 

Virtuous conduct imparts gratification of the highest 
kind, and it promotes the true interest of the agent. 
There is a modification of the selfish system, which 



110 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

attempts to avoid its offensive aspect by a singular and 
circuitous chain of moral emotions. This may be con- 
sidered as an ingenious play upon words. 

Selfishness. — We become selfish when we let our 
affections take the wrong course, when we do not con- 
trol them, but allow them to centre upon ourselves, to 
the exclusion of everybody else. We think only of 
self, and do not care for our fellow-men. If an affair 
is to our own interest, we do not care if it ruins men 
in their business, their reputation, or in any other way. 

The System of Paley. — Differences of opinion 
have sprung from this system. Dr. Paley says that 
virtue is doing good to all mankind, according to the 
will of God and for everlasting happiness. He says that 
the will of God is made known to us partly by revela- 
tion, and partly by the works of nature. He thinks that 
God wishes and wills the happiness of his creatures. 
If we wish to arrive at the will of God, he says, w T e 
must see if the action promotes happiness. His con- 
clusion is, that whatever is expedient is right. We 
object to this theory, because it gives right action no 
higher motive than simply that of receiving a reward. 

The Defect of Moral Systems. — Primarily the 
defect of many systems of morals is, in their not ac- 
knowledging the supreme authority of conscience. All 
theories of morals that do not acknowledge the power of 
conscience, as the regulating principle, are open to 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. Ill 

objections. It is clear that persons do not have the 
same opinions. What one man thinks right, another 
condemns as wrong. Besides, if man formed the code 
by which he is to be judged, it is natural that he would 
be lenient towards himself. 

Barbarous Nations. — We can readily see that the 
moral feelings of barbarous nations are uncultivated. 
They are unacquainted with the divine revelation, and 
they have imperfect notions of God ; hence, we do not 
expect to find that their opinions agree with those of 
men who have received the blessings of sound moral 
and religious instruction. 

The System of Sympathy.— Dr. Adam Smith 
advanced the system of sympathy. Our sympathy can 
not be supposed to constitute an action right or wrong, 
but it enables us to apply to individual cases the moral 
quality derived from conscience, and, in doing so, to 
clear our own judgment from the blinding influence of 
those selfish feelings, by which we are so apt to be misled. 
In estimating our own conduct, we apply to it those 
conclusions which we have made with regard to the 
conduct of our associates. Or we imagine others ap- 
plying the same process in regard to us, and we reflect 
how our conduct would appear to an impartial observer. 
If we sympathize with the feelings and intentions of 
the agent, we approve of his conduct as right; if not, 
we consider it as wrong. We observe our feelings in 
regard to the conduct of others, even when we are not 



112 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

personally concerned. According to Dr. Adam Smith, 
it is required for our moral sentiments respecting an 
action, that we enter into the feelings both of the agent 
and of him to whom the action relates. 

The Use of Sympathy* — If it were not for our 
sympathizing with persons in distress, we should be of 
little service to humanity. "When we hear an account of 
sorrow and do not sympathize with the sufferer, we are 
not prepared to use our ability towards relieving the 
distress. Tender sympathy is a flower worthy to bloom 
in the Paradise of God. 

The Province of Reason. — In moral decisions, 
reason has its province of comparing thoughts and 
things with each other. It should be cultivated, in 
order to render us wise in our conclusions. For in- 
stance, in feeling an ardent wish to promote the interest 
or relieve the distress of a human being, we must seek 
the most effectual means of giving our assistance. Fre- 
quently our intentions are good, but we err in judg- 
ment. We must, by study, learn to adapt ourselves to 
persons of different temperaments, and then we can 
readily understand what each will accept. We must, 
in a measure, learn from experience, and importance 
should be attached to the principles from which actions 
derive their character of uprightness. Reason should 
be applied to their tendencies, while we must reflect 
what would be the consequence and the propriety of 
such actions. Especially is this the case with our 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 113 

affections, seeking the best modes of exercising them, 
and in many cases deciding whether we should exercise 
them at all. Benevolence is a noble trait in a person's 
character, but let us take pains to see that our compas- 
sion is worthily bestowed. Prudence will show that if 
one is unworthy, we must exert ourselves for the most 
deserving person. 

It is hard for a strictly conscientious man to act, 
under circumstances in which his duty seems to inter- 
fere with that of another person. We should bring 
reason to bear in deciding whether it is a real duty ; 
but at all times, we should proceed upon a calm con- 
sideration of the motives by which we are influenced. 

The Corruption of Conscience. — Here we make 
a few remarks on the observations of some late writers 
respecting the corruption of conscience. Those writers 
to whom we refer, do not admit the authority of con- 
science. They seem to refer our moral impressions 
entirely to the will of the Deity, as made known to us 
by revelation. This power of the soul, conscience, is 
derived in one of two ways. It is either received from 
the divine Being, or it is the result of our speculations 
concerning utility ; but some writers reject this sys- 
tem. The theory of which they write, is the same that 
we call conscience ; they know it by different names, 
and the controversy resolves itself into a dispute about 
a name. 

Harmony of the Moral Feelings.— If a truthful 



114 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

person tells us that an affair is right, we are likely to 
believe him ; because we have confidence in what he tells 
us. Though, to have harmony among our moral feel- 
ings, we should always let conscience be our guide. 
Otherwise this harmony is disturbed and our moral 
nature suffers. 

Consistency of Character. — True consistency of 
character is the result of a regulated condition of the 
moral feeliugs, and it serves to promote due attention 
to the various responsibilities connected with the situa- 
tion in which the individual is placed. It does so by 
continually causing man to raise his views to the Eter- 
nal One, who is witness of all he does, and to whom 
every man is responsible for his actions. Consistency 
of character helps to keep man from all those partial and 
one-sided courses of conduct to which men are led by 
the mere love of praise, and by any of the other inferior 
motives, which are closely connected with self-love. 

Keligious pretension often show r s itself by external 
demonstrations, w T hile there are not the corresponding 
feelings within the soul. From such inconsistency of 
character arises an evil that has an injurious effect 
upon many persons. There may be much pretension 
where there is little, if any, real feeling. But we must 
not infer from this that there is no real virtue ; for 
such persons as these pretenders are compelled to have 
something real and genuine to counterfeit. By a slight 
gilding, articles of a trifling value may be made to 
assume the appearance of gold, but on this account, it 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 115 

would not be reasonable to say that there is no gold. 
There must be something valuable before it is imi- 
tated. If there were no sincere virtues, the hypocrite 
would have no necessity to assume good qualities, 
which he does not possess. Again, the imitations that 
we notice convince us that true virtue must be a 
reality. 

Consistency of character arises from a due harmony 
of the moral feelings. When all of the desires and 
affections are in perfect unison, and the moral con- 
dition is not impaired, we may rely upon, uniformity 
of conduct in such a person. We may, to a certain 
extent, know how he would act under given circum- 
stances. But in most cases, there is some predominat- 
ing affection which usurps an undue influence. This 
consistency of character is opposed to a depraved, dis- 
torted, warped disposition, which does not make a dis- 
tinction between the truth and falsehood. It is the 
business of a rational and free being not to create any 
thing as God did, but to construct a course of conduct. 
And this he is to do from the same principle, and on the 
same model, as God has constructed the universe. The 
principle is love. This we learn from the Word of 
God. The model is a variety of forces, broader and 
less broad, which may be represented by a pyramid, 
the forces being regulated in their relation by the law 
of limitation. This we learn from the works of God, 
or Nature. . . 



CHAPTEE XII. 

Man's Relation to God — An Appeal to the Deity — A 
Close Relation — Justice and Benevolence — View op 
the Divine Character — Moral Feelings — The Divine 
Presence — Submission — Our Moral Imperfection — 
Gratitude, Affection, and Love — Character — Means 
of Cultivating a Sense of the Divine Presence — 
Habitual Effort — Faith — Its Province — Illustration 
— Truths which are Faith's Object — The Influence 
of Faith — Moral Condition — Faith's Province in 
Christianity — Christianity and Moral Philosophy — 
The Will of God — Common Sense — Growth in Beauty. 

Those affections and acts which are involved in 
worship are conditioned on all that is below them. 
From this it will follow that worship is the highest act 
which man can perform, and that his nature does not 
reach its full expression without that. 

The Moral Relation of Man towards the 
Deity. — Some considerations lead us to the duties 
which a man owes to his fellow-men, while others call 
our attention to that homage of the mind and of the 
soul, which man owes peculiarly to God. For the du- 
ties to our fellow-beings, we are equally responsible to 
God, as the moral Governor of the universe, but their 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 117 

immediate reference is to our associations with other 
men. Still there are duties which respect our relation 
to the Deity himself, and therefore consist, in a great 
measure, in the purity and devotedness of the soul. In 
human systems of ethics, attention has been chiefly 
directed to the obligations of social and relative moral- 
ity, but the two classes are closely associated in the 
sacred writings, and the sound condition of the moral 
feelings is pointed out as that acquirement which, 
along with corresponding integrity of character, quali- 
fies man in an especial manner for acceptance with the 
Deity. 

An Appeal to the Deity. — In all man's relations 
to his fellow-creatures, we may appeal to God as the 
governing power, but there is a nearer relation. It is 
not surprising that, as the Creator of man's wonderful 
body and mind, God should have direct intercourse 
with the mind, and even in secret see into its workings, 
and hence the great importance of keeping the mind 
perfectly free from impure thoughts. God has placed 
conscience within us, to let us know that man has 
fallen, and that he may realize his near relation to 
Deity previous to the fall ; also that man may approach 
as near to perfection as possible. 

A Close Relation. — Man is closely related to the 
Deity, his governor and protector, who has made his 
laws and caused them to be written in his book, in 
order that they may be known and obeyed. He gives 



118 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

ns strength to perform our duties, if we come to him in 
the hour of need. He leaves the way open to us ; but if 
we persist in doing wrong, and will not ask his forgive- 
ness when we have sinned, we incur his displeasure. 

Justice and Benevolence. — In contemplating 
man's relation to the Deity, there are three great facts 
to be considered; justice, benevolence, and conformity 
to duty. We are led to study our duty to God, to our 
fellow-men, and to ourselves. Man judges by the out- 
ward appearance, but God judges by the inner state of 
the heart. If a man loves God, relies upon him, and 
obeys his laws, God will stand to such a man in the 
same relation that a father occupies to his son. 

The Divine Character. — In reference to this re- 
lation, when we view the Divine character, we look 
upon God as our great moral Governor, an infinite, self- 
existent, and eternal Being. We see his superintend- 
ing care and goodness, in the way that he has made 
ample provision for supplying the wants, and minis- 
tering to the comfort of all his creatures. We con- 
template God as a high and holy being, endowed with 
unlimited power and wisdom. God is a Spirit, in- 
finitely wise, holy, just, and merciful. But when we 
compare him with the people upon earth, he appears 
in sublime and glorious majesty in his exalted character 
as a moral Governor. 

He created us, hence he knows, not only all our ac- 
tions, but our most secret thoughts. God looks upon 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 119 

the heart, and knows it altogether. A subject more 
interesting can not be found than the condition of the 
heart, after which every man ought to seek when he 
knows that he is always exposed to the inspection of 
the Almighty. 

Moral Feelings. — That regulation of the moral 
feelings which ought to arise out of man's relation to 
God, implies sacred reverence for the character of the 
Deity. It is opposed to anything that will weaken the 
reverential feelings due to the character and name of 
the Almighty. There is a state of mind which the 
moral feelings approve ; this appears in two relations, 
one referring to the Deity, and the other to our fellow- 
men. The first is an effort to have every desire, affec- 
tion, thought, and emotion of the soul in submission to 
the Creator. The second division includes the cultiva- 
tion of feelings of kindness towards all men with the 
love of peace and truth. 

From these two mental conditions must spring a 
character distinguished alike for piety towards God, 
and for active usefulness to men. He who earnestly 
cultivates this purity within, feels that he requires 
watchfulness. He knows also that he can look up 
with confidence and hope w T hen, under a sense of moral 
weakness, he asks for the powerful aid of the Deity. 

Habitual Effort to Cultivate a Sense of the 
Divine Presence. — This implies reverence and love 
for the Deity, while it is opposed to every kind of pro- 



120 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 

faneness, or anything by which one might weaken in 
himself, or in others, the reverential feeling due to- 
wards the character and attributes of God. This must 
not only be extended to the outward conduct, but it 
must reach the inmost affections of the soul. A benev- 
olent regard for our fellow-men may be checked from 
producing exemplary conduct, while envy and hatred 
remain in the soul. 

It is upon the mind that cherishes malevolent pas- 
sions, with impure desires and imaginations, that God 
looks with feelings of displeasure and condemnation. 
Amid the various pursuits of ordinary life, we are too 
apt to lose sight of those duties and responsibilities, 
which attend a state of moral discipline, and that cul- 
ture of the soul which is required, as a preparation for 
the future state of existence to which we are hastening. 

There may be original principles in our nature which 
lead to a certain exercise of justice, veracity, and be- 
nevolence, independently of any knowledge of divine 
authority. We may see also that, as the necessity in 
nature that is before freedom is necessary, in order that 
man may rule over nature, so also is the necessity after 
freedom of consequences within himself necessary in 
order that God may rule over him, by any system of 
natural consequences, or indeed by reward and punish- 
ment in any form. 

Submission. — Humble and willing submission is 
due to the appointments of Providence, as parts of a 
great system, which is regulated by infinite wisdom 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 121 

Any man who bears upon his mind this sublime im- 
pression, has learned to contemplate the Almighty One 
as disposing of the events of this world, assigning to 
every creature the place that he occupies. He sees 
that duties belong to the position, and they call for 
the cultivation of moral qualities adapted to the 
circumstances. 

Whether the positions are those of comfort, influence, 
or wealth, solemn obligations arise out of the means of 
usefulness which these command. Such a submission 
of the human soul to the appointments of God does 
not preclude the use of all legitimate means for im- 
proving our condition, or for preventing and removing 
distress. Our freedom lies between two forms of ne- 
cessity, the one necessary to the existence of freedom, 
the other to the moral government of free beings. 

Moral Imperfection. — Man experiences the sense 
of moral imperfection, of guilt, then he makes supplica- 
tion for mercy, with a full reliance upon divine aid. 
This sense of our own imperfections, of course, leads us 
to realize our condition, and when we are convinced of 
it, we plead for mercy. And as God has told us that 
when we rightly ask for mercy, it shall be given unto 
us, we. expect aid from him, knowing that we can do 
nothing that is meritorious without his guidance. 

Gratitude and Love. — The sense of gratitude, 
affection, and love towards the Deity, is produced by 
his kindness and his love for us. He is the giver of 
6 



122 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 

all good, and is our daily preserver and benefactor; he 
is merciful and gracious, slow to anger. The character 
of the Messiah is often spoken of as a matter of mere 
historical interest, but he presents the purest and most 
perfect example that was ever known to the world. 
He went about doing good, healing the sick, giving 
sight to the blind, teaching pure morality, and then 
giving his life for the whole world. 

It is this sense of gratitude, affection, and love that 
causes us, while in sickness, to suffer so long, without 
murmuring, but in perfect submission to God's will. 
The Deity's character corresponds with that high tone 
of morals enjoined in the sacred writings. Its elements 
are defined and clear. Would we seek to estimate its 
sublimity and its truth, we have only to compare it 
with those distorted and temporizing systems, which 
have resulted from the inventions of men. 

Conduct and Character. — If we would have our 
conduct and character adapted to the right condition 
of moral feelings, there should be a due regulation of 
the desires and affections. We must patiently submit 
to the will of the Almighty, and suppress every selfish 
feeling. Such a character as this corresponds with 
that described in the Holy Scriptures. The word and 
the works of God give as the law of conduct. Our 
conduct is to spring from rational love; the man, 
meanwhile, being brought under obligations. 

Means of Cultivating a Sense of the Divine 



ELEMENTS OE MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 123 

Presence. — To cultivate a feeling of the presence of 
the Creator, we must have reverence for his character, 
and avoid every thing that would tend to the contrary. 
We must pay strict attention to the nature of our 
thoughts, and always entertain pure meditations; for 
evil thoughts have a bad influence, and draw our at- 
tention away from the contemplation of the character 
of the Deity. If we think of him, we shall see how 
weak and sinful we are; this will be accompanied by a 
feeling of humility, and a desire to be more like him. 
In this way, though little by little, our characters will 
be improved. 

Habitual Effort. — There should be the habitual 
effort to cultivate a sense of the Divine presence, and 
by this to regulate the moral feelings and character. A 
character thus finished will constitute one of the high- 
e:t in the scale of moral beings, where there is a con- 
stant endeavor to shape the character so as to make 
it as nearly as possible like that of the Giver of all good 
gifts. He, who sees in secret, is the source of all good- 
ness, knows all things, and must be perfect in all his 
attributes. 

The Operation of Faith. — In order to become 
good Christians, we must first repent of all our sins, 
and then have faith. This faith is a compound opera- 
tion, which can be analyzed. It is composed of reason, 
attention, and a modification of conception. Eeason 
finds out the truth of all the statements whim come 



124 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 



into the mind, and can in any way act upon the moral 
feelings. The province of attention must next be ex- 
amined as one of the elements of faith. Assisted by 
reason it is to direct the mind closely to the truths, so 
as to see clearly their relations and tendencies. 

By the last process the truths are brought before us 
in such a manner as to appear real. In these ways, 
truths relating to things for which we have not the 
evidence of our senses, or referring to events which are 
future, but fully expected to happen, are kept before 
the mind, and influence the moral feelings as well as 
the character, in the same manner as if the facts be- 
lieved were actually seen, or the events expected were 
taking place in our view. The real definition of faith 
given to us by Saint Paul is, that " Faith is the sub- 
stance of things hoped for, and the evidence of things 
not seen." The substance is that which gives things 
subsistence in the views and feelings of the soul, and 
leads it to treat them as if they were real. While the 
evidence produces conviction of their reality and 
importance; that they actually are as they are re- 
presented. Faith is a glorious reality and mightily 
efficacious. 



The Province of Faith in the Philosophy 
of the Moral Feelings, — Intimately connected 
with (his subject, also, is a remarkable principle in our 
constitution, formerly referred to ; the relation be- 
tween certain facts or truths and the moral emotions 
which arise from them, according to the chain of se- 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 125 

quences which has been established in the economy o.T 
the mind. A very close connection exists between our 
intellectual habits and our moral feelings, which un- 
questionably leads to consequences of the utmost prac- 
tical moment. Though we have little voluntary power 
over our moral emotions, we have a power over the 
intellectual processes with which these are associated. 
We can direct the mind to truths, and we can cherish 
traing of thought, which are designed to produce cor- 
rect moral feelings; besides, we can avoid or banish 
mental images and trains of thought which have an 
opposite tendency. This is the power over the succes- 
sion of our thoughts, the due exercise of which forms 
so marked a feature of a well-regulated mind, in regard 
to intellectual culture. 

Illustration. — Without faith we can not be saved 
from the power of sin. If we did not believe the sa- 
cred Scriptures, it is clear that we could not have faith 
in them. When God told an Israelite king to do a 
certain thing, he obeyed, but lacked faith, and so he 
was punished. The woman of Jericho was saved by 
faith. She took some spies and hid them when they 
were in danger, and upon their departure they prom- 
ised to save her and her family when the city was 
captured. 

Truths Which are Faith's Object.— The human 
mind is ever and restlessly breaking loose from the 
present and all things perishable about it, and grasping 



126 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 

after something in the future distance. Search after 
happiness is the great law of human nature, and in all 
the wanderings of the mind in search of something 
that can be relied upon as the foundation of unalloyed 
happiness, it instinctively turns to the lessons taught 
us in early life, which are truths recorded in the sacred 
writings of divine origin. After careful research, and 
study of the truths found in the Scriptures, we are 
convinced of the certainty of the existence of an all- 
wise God; also, that our hopes of true happiness are 
based upon the laws and provisions offered by inspired 
authors. The more we search, and the more thought 
we give to the Word of God, the more convinced w r e 
are of the truth of the Christian religion, as taught by 
our Saviour while on earth. These truths being es- 
tablished in our minds, we are naturally led to an 
abiding faith in God, to whom we look for the blessings 
of this life, and the rewards promised in the life to 
come. So the establishment of these truths in our 
minds has the tendency of purifying our conduct in a 
moral point of view, thereby securing to us that great 
boon — happiness, for which the mind is seeking. This 
is a happiness which is both perfect and everlasting. 

The Influence of Faith. — But, independent of 
our conviction of an actual communication from the 
Deity, there is a power in the mind itself, which draws 
down upon it an influence of the process which we call 
faith. It may be illustrated by an impression which 
many persons must have experienced. Thus, for an 



ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 12? 

example, let us suppose that we have a friend of ex- 
alted intelligence aud virtue, who has often exercised 
over us a commanding influence, restraining us from 
wrong pursuits, and exciting us to good conduct. This 
friend is our counsellor. Such is the communication 
of the soul with God. 

Faith's Influence on the Moral Condition. — 

These truths are not the visions of enthusiasm, neither 
are they the result of any process of reasoning by which 
different men may arrive at various conclusions. They 
force themselves upon our conviction with a power 
which we can not put away from us, when we think 
about the solemn inquiry, What we are, why we are 
here, whither we are tending, and what is God ? In 
the writings of the Bible, these truths are detailed and 
illustrated in a connected and harmonious manner, 
and they are forced upon our minds by a revelation 
from the Deity himself. 

But the principles there disclosed meet with an im- 
pression in our moral constitution, which pleads with 
authority for their truth. It is the province of faith 
to keep these facts ever before our minds, and it causes 
them to influence the feelings and the conduct, as if 
they were objects of sense, as if the Deity, in all the 
purity of his character, were actually disclosed to our 
view. The man w r ho thus feels the power of these 
principles, and exhibits their influence upon his con- 
duct, is a person who lives by faith. 

AT hen under this mental exercise a man brings him- 



128 ELEMENTS OE MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 

self into the immediate presence of the eternal One, 
when a man arraigns himself, as it were, before the 
bar of the omniscient Judge, when man places be- 
fore himself that future state which extends into end- 
less existence, a train of feelings must arise in his 
mind to which he was a stranger, so long as he placidly 
resigned himself to the sole influence of things pre- 
sented by the senses. 

It is the province of faith to keep constantly before 
us the revelations from the Deity, and to cause them 
to influence the feelings and the conduct, as if they 
w 7 ere objects of sense, as if God, in all his perfect attri- 
butes, were visibly before our view. When under this 
impression a man brings himself into the presence of 
God, he views the Deity as a being of infinite holiness, 
as one who has been, all the man's life, the witness of 
his conduct, and who knows all the secrets of his char- 
acter. Such a man will try then to improve his moral 
condition, so that he can better undergo the inspection 
of the divine Being. 

Faith in Christianity.— That is a solemn hour, 
when we, after retiring from the tumult of life, ask 
ourselves about our moral condition, What has been 
our occupation in this life that will soon end? And 
(hen, are we willing to unfold to the incomprehensible 
One our moral character? But as he sees us, do we 
think, when the full splendor of his eye is upon us, and 
we arc called into the presence of his unerring purity, 
that we shall be ready to answer for our conduct? 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 129 

Faith occupies a prominent place in the Christian 
doctrine, and it is interesting to get a clear view of its 
nature. It is a process that all feel, but few can fully 
define. One who believes that he will receive the gifts 
of God, and that the Deity is a holy, just, and merciful 
God, will be saved through his faith. When a sick 
man hears that there is one to administer something 
for his comfort, if there is virtue in the remedy, if he 
has confidence in the person, he will apply for the 
remedy; he receives it, and thus his faith saves him; 
because, by means of it, he sought the offered aid. 
But were he merely to admit the fact, his belief would 
avail him nothing. Thus faith unfolds a dispensation 
of peace, by which the Deity offers mercy, forgiveness, 
and an influence from himself, which has power to 
purify the moral being. So these blessings are con- 
ferred upon men who believe ; and they are the persons 
who are fully convinced of their guilt, and who con- 
ceive their utter inability to rescue themselves, and 
willingly confess the power that God has of overcoming 
their sinful tendencies — their faith saves them. A man 
asks the promised aid, and receives it. We shall not 
seek the remedy, if we do not have confidence in its 
good effects. Man knows of his moral condition from 
the voice of conscience. We know the sincerity of 
God's offer from the impression of the unchangeable 
attributes of the Deity, and if we come to him with 
the hope of acceptance, we are required to come in the 
assurance of faith. 



130 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Harmony. — Christian truth and the moral feelings 
accord with each other, and there is a beautiful har- 
mony between them, as is shown by careful examina- 
tion. The Christian finds it difficult at first, perhaps, 
to imitate his great exemplar • but after a while, ad- 
vancing step by step, he approaches the perfect light. 
Man undoubtedly owes much of his present and 
future happiness to the great truths of morality and 
religion. 

The will of God is communicated to us immediately 
through our conscience. As has already been said, 
conscience is a portion of God's spirit placed within us, 
and it is not to direct, but it is to be directed by him, 
and by this direction we are guided. This mediate or 
immediate communication of the will of God to man 
is a problem which has caused no little controversy 
among philosophers. However, it is plain that God 
does reveal his will to man for the purposes of instruc- 
tion, reproof, and guidance. 

Common Sense. — This common sense is a quality 
of the mind, not so common as the words imply. Many 
claim it, who have no title to its possession. It is a 
high standard of mental worth. The brain coin that 
bears its imprint, has a par value wherever man is 
governed by pure reason. It interprets law and defines 
justice. Its precious beam is to the scientist what the 
compass is to the mariner. When men cut loose from 
its anchorage, they are lost in the sea of speculation. 
Truth inscribes it on her banner of beauty, and under 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 131 

its folds marshals her armies of peasants, princes, and 

potentates. 

Growth in Beauty. — Human beings may outgrow 
disease and become healthful, by proper attention to 
their physical constitution. By moderate daily exer- 
cise and suitable food, any person who has no heredi- 
tary disease may become strong in limb and muscle. 
But is there any process by which people may grow 
beautiful ? Live as we may, age dims the lustre of 
the eye, and pales the flush of the cheek, while infirm- 
ities mar the human form divine. But while this is 
true, dim as the eye is, pallid and sunken as may be 
the face of beauty, frail and feeble that once strong, 
erect, and symmetrical form, the immortal soul, just 
fledging its wings for Heaven, may look out through 
those faded windows as beautiful as a dewdrop on a 
summer's morning, as melting as the tears that glisten 
in affection's eye ; by growing kindly, by cultivating 
sympathy with all mankind, by cherishing forbearance 
towards the follies and foibles of our race, and feeding 
day by day on that love of God and man which lifts us 
from the brute, and makes us akin to angels. . 



APPENDIX. 

Political Economy— Domestic Economy— Esthetics— Nat- 
ural Theology — Evidences of Christianity. 

Political Economy. — This is the science which 
teaches the laws that regulate the production, distribu- 
tion, and exchange of wealth. Any thing for which 
something can be had in exchange is wealth, and a 
commodity is wealth in a tangible form. Capital is 
wealth saved, and used in production. 

Air and water may, or may not, be considered as 
wealth ; when they are free, or we are free to use them, 
then they are not wealth ; but when Ave are compelled 
to give any thing for them, then they are wealth. 
Water in a diving-bell is worse than useless, but to a 
thirsty man in the desert it has a great value. A man's 
money locked up without interest is not productive 
capital. Political economy relates to public wealth, 
and domestic economy belongs to home affairs. Exam- 
ples from this science are advantageously used as illus- 
trations of problems in ethics, or moral philosophy. 

To produce wealth, the three things required are — 
natural agents, capital, and labor. Natural agents, 
which are limited in quantity, are wealth, and those 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 133 

which are practically unlimited are not wealth. Capi- 
tal is divided into fixed and circulating, but the pro- 
portion of fixed to circulating capital depends upon 
the way in which capital is used. The stock of capital 
is kept up by constant reproduction, while the amount 
of capital used measures the amount of labor employed. 

Domestic Economy relates to the management 
of wealth at home, the manner in which to gain 
wealth, and when it is obtained, to take care of, and 
use property to advantage. Wealth is any thing which 
can be used to produce more wealth ; such as corn, 
houses, land, and money. Capital is wealth that is 
used to produce more wealth ; thus, the sum of one 
thousand dollars, if put out at interest, is productive 
capital. The principles of political and domestic econ- 
omy are much the same, though political economy 
may be said to embrace domestic economy. 

^Esthetics. — ^Esthetics is the science of the beau- 
tiful. The true is the conformity of thoughts with 
things, the beautiful is the consummation of the true, 
and the good is the consummation of the beautiful. 
When an object is regular, bounded by systematic out- 
lines, and makes an agreeable impression upon us, we 
say that it is beautiful. A beautiful person has fea- 
tures which have pleasant outline and surface. The 
beautiful extends its domain through the physical, the 
intellectual, the moral, and the religious worlds. God 
is the source of the true, the beautiful, and the good. 



134 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Natural Theology. — If we were inclined to doubt 
the possibility of a future state of existence, we find in 
nature much to overcome this uncertainty, and to con- 
vince us of the truth. This science, from nature, 
proves the existence of God ; it shows also that he must 
be infinitely wise, good, and holy. In nature we see 
design, and hence there must be a designer; we see 
justice, mercy, and goodness, but he who bestows these 
virtues must possess them in an infinite degree, and 
the infinitely just, merciful, and good Being is God. 

In all cases wherein the mind feels itself in danger of 
being confounded by variety, it is sure to rest upon a 
few strong points, or perhaps upon a single instance. 
Among a multitude of proofs, there is one which is 
the strongest. If we observe in any argument that 
hardly two minds fix upon the same instance, the di- 
versity of choice shows the strength of the argument, 
because it shows the number and competition of the 
examples. 

Evidences of Christianity. — The New Testa- 
ment gives internal evidences of Christianity, and there 
are also external or historical evidences. Powerful 
evidences of Christianity, or the religion of the New 
Testament, are afforded by prophecy, miracles, the 
spread of the gospel, and the fruits of Christianity, as 
they are exemplified in the lives of true believers. 
These evidences .show the divine authority of Chris- 
tianity, and the inspiration of the Scriptures. "VVe have 
not only a religion revealed from God, but an infallible 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 135 

expression of its doctrine and duties. We have the 
guide, as well as the way to everlasting bliss, both 
equally certain, equally divine. Let us be thankful 
for such unspeakable gifts. Next to the mercy of a 
Saviour, able and ready to save to the uttermost all who 
come unto God by him, is the book of the inspiration 
of God, which, as a lamp to our feet, and a light to our 
path, conducts us to such a Friend, and teaches us the 
way of salvation. 



INDEX. 



Actions, 23. 

Action, The Desire of, 42. 

^Esthetics, 133. 

Affection, 121. 

Affections, 29, 44, 65. 

Ambition, 37. 

Animal Propensities, 35. 

Appeal to the Deity, 117. 

Appendix, 132. 

Attention, 84, 103. 

Attributes, Divine, 99. 

Barbarous nations, 111. 
Benevolence, 52, 118. 

Candor, 48. 

Causes by which Harmony is 

Interrupted, 10. 
Caution, 157. 

Character, 47, 55, 85, 114, 122. 
Christianity, 134. 
Christian Revelation, 100. 
Clarke, 107. 
Classification, 22. 
Common Sense, 130. 
Compassion, 52. 



Conclusions, 81. 
Conduct, 47, 55. 
Conscience, 31, 90, 92, 96, 106. 
Consistency of Character, 114. 
Corruption of Conscience, 113. 

Defect of Moral Systems, 110. 
Defensive Affections, 67. 
Definition, 57. 
Deliberation, 31. 
Desires, 29, 33. 
Disinterested Conduct, 77. 
Distresses, 53. 
Divine Assistance, 87. 
Divine Presence, The, 119, 122. 
Division of the Mental Powers, 8. 
Domestic Affections, 66. 
Domestic Economy, 133. 
Downward Progress, 72. 
Duty to Our Neighbor, 47. 

Emulation, 38. 
Esteem, The Desire of, 40. 
Evidences of Christianity, 134. 
Exercise of the Affections, 68. 
Explication, 30. 



138 



INDEX. 



Facts, Ascertaining, 61. 

Faith, 88, 123. 

Faith's Province in Christianity, 

128. 
Feelings, 49, 56. 
First Cause, The Great, 24. 
First Truths, 19, 22. 
Freedom of Action, 45. 
Friendship, 65. 
Function of Conscience, The, 

93. 
Future Existence, 25. 

God's Spirit, 97. 
Golden Rule, 50. 
Gratitude, 65, 121. 
Growth in Beauty, 131. 

Habits, 85. 
Habitual Effort, 123. 
Happiness, 71. 
Harmony, 9, 104, 130. 
Harmony of the Moral Feelings, 

113. 
How Conscience Acts, 97. 

Illustration, 38, 89, 125. 
Impaired Conscience, 101. 
Influence of Conscience, The, 

98, 102. 
Influence of Faith, The, 126. 
Integrity, 45. 

Intellectual Processes, 103. 
Interest of this Science, 17. 



Justice, 45, 49, 118. 

Knowledge, 83. 
Knowledge Derived from Con- 
science, 98. 
Knowledge, Kinds cf, 41. 
Knowledge, The Desire of, 40. 

Love, 65, 121. 
Love of Country, 66. 

Man, 30. 

Mandeville, 106. 

Man's Relation to God, 32,. 116. 

Means of Correcting Injurious 

Habits, 86. 
Moral Approbation, 70. 
Moral Causes, 81. 
Moral Condition, 50, 57, 127. 
Moral Emotions, 103. 
Moral Feelings, 27, 119. 
Moral Habits, 84. 
Moral Imperfection, Our, 121. 
Moral Improvement, 41. 
Moral Principle, The, 92. 
Moral Responsibility, 25. 
Moral Systems, Defect of, 110. 

Natural Theology, 134. 
Nature and Importance of 

Ethics, 7. 
Nature and Probability of Di- 

vine Aid, 88. 
Nature of Moral Causes, 81. 



INDEX. 



139 



Observations, 64, 69, 78, 95. 
Origin of Virtue and Vice, 105. 

Paley's System, 110. 
Political Economy, 182. 
Proofs of Conscience, 93. 
Province of Faith, The, 124, 

128. 

Reason, 96. 

Reason in Moral Decisions, 112. 
Regulation of the Desires, 43. 
Relation, A Close, 117. 
Remarks, 34, 75. 
Reputation, 46, 54 
Resemblance of First Truths, 

21. 
Responsibility for Belief, 103. 
Right and Wrong, 97. 

Self-Denial, 77. 
Selfishness, 74, 76, 110. 
Selfish System, The, 109. 
Self-Love, 29, 73. 
Society, The Desire of, 39. 
Sources of Knowledge, 18. 
Statements, Delivering, 62. 



Submission, 120. 
Sympathy, Theory of, 111. 
Sympathy, The Use of, 112. 

Temper, 72. 

Tendency of Self-Love, 75. 
Theory of Sympathy, 111. 
Truth, Love of, 61. 
Truth of Purpose, 64. 
Truths which are Faith's Ob- 
ject, 125. 

Uniformity of Moral Relations, 

83. 
Utility, The System of, 108. 

Veracity, 59. 

Vice, 105. 

View of the Divine Character, 

118. 
Virtue, 105. 
Volition, 80. 

Wealth, The Desire of, 36. 
Will of God, The, 130. 
Will, The Human, 30, 79. 
Wollaston, 107. 



THE END. 



BARNES'S MAGAZINE OF 
AMERICAN HISTORY. 



B. F. DeCosta and Henry P. Johnston, editors. 

The only periodical on this continent exclusively devoted to the history 
and antiquities of America ; containing original essays, articles, and docu- 
ments, reprints and translations of rare papers necessary to the student and 
general reader ; literary reviews and notices of current publications, serving 
as a guide to the collector; a special department of notes and queries, and a 
monthly chronicle of occurrences. 

It appears monthly, in numbers of eighty pages each, is handsomely \ rinted 
and illustrated with a profusion of steel and wood engravings, and makes two 
elegant volumes a year. 

This publication is now firmly established with the support of the cultivated 
people of the country. It is invaluable to the reading public, covering a 
Held not occupied by ordinary periodical literature. It numbers among its 
contributors many of the most distinguished historical scholars of the 
country, and is in every way an admirable table companion for the scholar, 
and for all persons of literary and antiquarian tastes. It has met with general 
approval, and already forms a storehouse of material not accessible in any 
other form. 

It is of the greatest value to teachers of history and their classes. It 
affords a profitable reading exercise for older scholars. 

The first and second volumes of this magazine have become scarce, so that 
they can be supplied only as odd numbers can be picked up here and there. 
The publishers will receive orders for them, however, which they will endeavor 
to fill as rapidly as possible, and in the order in which subscriptions are. 
received. Parties who desire the current volume had better secure it by sub- 
scribing now, rather than run the risk of obtaining it at the end of the year. 

Subscription price, $5.00. For clubs (not less than five under one cover), 
we will pay a cash commission of one dollar on each subscription. 

Sample number, 50 cents. 

On receipt of $5.00 we will send the " Monthly" and any SI. 50 book of 
the Teachers' Library, post-paid. On receipt of $20.00 we will accept four 
subscriptions, or one subscription for four years, and send as premium 
'•' Barnes's Popular United States History," price, $6.00. 

We wish to appoint an agent in every town, city, and county in the United 
States, and will furnish blanks and envelopes for the purpose to the first 
responsible applicant. 

A. S. BARNES AND COMPANY, Publishers, 

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 



SCHOOL AID COLLEGE TEXT-BOOKS. 

» 

The National Series Readers and Spellers, 



THE NATIONAL READERS, 



No. i. 
No. 2. 
No. 3. 
No. 4. 
No. 5. 
No. 6. 



By PARKER and WATSON 

National Primer . . . 
National First Reader . 
National Second Reader 
National Third Reader 
National Fourth Reader 
National Fifth Reader . 



National Elementary Speller 
National Pronouncing Speller 



64 pp 


16° 


128 " 


16° 


224 " 


16° 


288 " 


12° 


432 " 


12° 


600 " 


12° 


160 pp 


16° 


188 «' 


12° 



THE INDEPENDENT READERS, 



By J. MADISON -WATSON. 



The Independent First ( Pri ™ ry ) Reader 


. 80 pp 


.16° 


The Independent Second Reader . 


. . 160 " 


16° 


The Independent Third Reader 


. . 240 ' 


16° 


The Independent Fourth Reader . 


. . 264 " 


12° 


The Independent Fifth Reader . . 


. 336 " 


12° 


The Independent Sixth Reader . . 


. • 474 " 


12° 


The Independent Complete Speller 


. 162 " 


16° 



The Independent Child's Speller (Script) 80 pp. 16° 
The Independent Youth's Speller (Script) 168 " 12° 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 



Monteith's Popular Science Reader. 

James Monteitb, author of Monteith's Geographies, as here presented a Supple- 
mentary Reading Book expressly for the work of instruction in reading and science at 
one and the same time. It presents a number of easy and interesting lessons on Natural 
Science and Natural History, interspersed with appropriate selectious in prose and 
poetry from standard authors, with blackboard drawing and written exercises. It 
serves to instil the noblest, qualities of soul and mind, without rehearsing stories of 
moral and menial depravity, as is too often done in juvenile books. The book is elabo- 
rately illustrated with fine engravings, and brief notes at the foot of each page add to 
the value and teachableness of the volume. 12mo, half bound, 360 pages. 

The Standard Supplementary Readers. 

The Standard Supplementary Readers (formerly Sivinton's Supplementary Readirs), 
edited by William Swinton and George R. Cathcart. have been received with marked 
favor in representative quarters from Maine to California. They comprise a series of 
carefully graduated reading books, designed to connect with any series of school Readers. 
They are attractive in appearance, are bound in cloth, and the first four books are 
profusely illustrated by Fredericks, White, Dielman, Church, and others. The six books, 
which are closely co-ordinated with the several Readers of any regular series, are : — 

1. Easy Steps for Little Feet. Supplementary to First Reader. 

In this book the attractive is the chief aim, and the pieces have been written and 
chosen with special reference to the feelings and fancies of early childhood. 128 pages, 
bound in cloth and profusely illustrated. 

2. Golden Book of Choice Reading. Supplementary to Second 

Reader. 
This book represents a great variety of pleasing and instructive reading, consisting of 
child-lore and poetry, noble examples and attractive object-reading, written specially for it. 
11)2 pages, cloth, with numerous illustrations. 

3. Book of Tales. Being School Readings Imaginative and Emotional. 

Supplementary to Third Reader. 
In this book the youthful taste for imaginative and emotional is fed with pure and noble 
creations drawn from the literature of all nations. 272 pages, cloth. Fully illustrated. 

4. Readings in Nature's Book. Supplementary to Fourth Reader. 
This book contains a varied collection of charming readings in natural history and 

botany, drawn from the works of the great modern naturabsts and travellers. 352 pages, 
cloth. Fully illustrated. 

5. Seven American Classics. 

6. Seven British Classics. 

The " Classics " are suitable for reading in advanced grades, and aim to instil a 
taste for the higher literature, by the presentation of gems of British and American 
authorship. 220 pages each, cloth. 

8 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Smith's Series. 

Smith's Series supplies a Speller for every class in graded schools, and comprises 
the most complete and excellent treatise on English Orthography and its companion 
branches extant. 

1. Smith's Little Speller. 

First round in the ladder of learning. 

2. Smith's Juvenile Definer. 

Lessons composed of familiar words grouped with reference to similar significa- 
tion or use, and correctly spelled, accented, and defined. 

3. Smith's Grammar-School Speller. 

Familiar words, grouped with reference to the sameness of sound of syllables dif- 
ferently spelled. Also definitions, complete rules for spelling and formation of deriva- 
tives, and exercises in false orthography. 

4. Smith's Speller and Definer's Manual. 

A complete School Dictionary, containing 14,000 words, with various other useful 
matter in the way of rules and exercises. 

5. Smith's Etymology — Small and Complete Editions. 

The first and only Etymology to recognize the Anglo- Saxon our mother tongue; 
containing also full lists of derivatives from the Latin, Greek, Gaelic, Swedish, Norman, 
&c. , &.c. ; being, in fact, a complete etymology of the language for schools. 

Northend's Dictation Exercises. 

Embracing valuable information on a thousand topics, communicated in such a 
manner as at once to relieve the exercise of spelling of its usual tedium, and combine 
it with instruction of a general character calculated to profit and amuse. 

Phillip's Independent Writing Spellers. 

1. Primary. 2. Intermediate. 3. Advanced. 

Unquestionably the best results can be attained in writing spelling exercises. This 
series combines with written exercise a thorough and practical instruction in penman- 
ship. Copies in capitals and small letters are set on every page. Spaces for twenty 
words and definitions and errors are given in each lesson. In the advanced book there 
is additional space lor sentences. In practical life we spell only when we write. 

Brown's Pencil Tablet for Written Spelling. 

The cheapest prepared pad of ruled blanks, with stiff board back, sufficient for 
54 lessons of 2o words. 

Pooler's Test Speller. 

The best collection of " hard words " yet made. The more uncommon ones are fully 
defined, and the whole are arranged alphabetically for convenient reference. The book 
is designed for Teachers' Institutes and " Spelling Schools," and is prepared by an 
experienced and well-known conductor of Institutes. 

Wright's Analytical Orthography. 

This standard work is popular, because it teaches the elementary sounds in a 
plain and philosophical manner, and presents orthography and orthoepy in an easy, 
uniform system of analysis or parsing. 

9 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — Continued. 

Barber's Complete Writing Speller. 

" The Student's Own Hand-Book of Orthography, Definitions, and Sentences, con- 
sisting of Written Exercises in the Proper Spelling, Meaning, and Use 01 Words'' 
(Published 1873.) This differs from Sherwood's and other writing spellers in its mon 
comprehensive character. Its blanks are adapted to writing whole sentences instea< 
of detached words, with the proper divisions for numbering, corrections, &c. Suci 
aids as this, like Watson's Child's Speller and Phillip's Writing Speller, find tlieii 
raison d'etre in the postulate that the art of correct spelling is dependent upon written, 
and not upon spoken language, for its utility, if not for its very existence. Henc 
the indirectness of purely oral instruction. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Smith's Complete Etymology. 
Smith's Condensed Etymology. 

Containing the Anglo-Saxon, French, Dutch, German, Welsh, Danish, Gothic, Swedish, 
Gaelic, Italian, Latin, and Greek roots, and the English words derived therefrom 
accurately spelled, accented, and defined. 

From Hon. Jno. G. McMvnn, late State 

Superintendent of Wisconsin. 

" I wish every teacher in the country 
had a copy of this work." 

From Prof. C. H. Verrill, Pa. State 

Xormal School. 

"The Etymology (Smith's) which we 
procured of you we like much. It is the 
best work for the class-room we have 
seen." * 



From Prin. Wm. F. Phelps, Minn, State 
Normal. 

"The book is superb — just what is 
needed in the department of etymology 
and spelling." 

From Hon. Edward Ballard, Supt. of 
Common Sclcools, State of Maine. 

'' The author has furnished a manual of 
singular utility for its purpose." 



DICTIONARY. 

Williams's Dictionary of Synonymes ; 

Or, Topical Lexicon. This work is a School Dictionary, an Etymology, a compilation 
of Synonymes, and a manual of General Information. It differs from the ordinary lexicon 
in being arranged by topics, instead of the letters of the alphabet, thus realizing the 
apparent paradox of a " Readable Dictionary." An unusually valuable school-book. 

Kwong's Dictionary of English Phrases. 

With Illustrative Sentences, collections of English and Chinese Proverbs, transla- 
tions of Latin and French Phrases, historical sketch of the Chinese Empire, a chrono- 
logical list of the Chinese Dynasties, brief biographical sketches of Confucius and 
of Jesus, and complete index 15* Kwong Ki Chin, late Member of the Chinese Edu- 
cational Mission in the United States, and formerly principal teacher of English in the 
Government School at Shanghai, China fliOpiges. Svo. Cloth. 

From the Hartjord Courant : " The volume is one. of the most curious and interest- 
ing of linguistic works.'' 

From the New York Nation : " It will amaze the sand-lot gentry to be informed that 
this remarkable work will supplement our English dictionaries even for native Americans." 

10 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SILL'S SYSTEM. 
Practical Lessons in English. 

A brief course in Grammar and Composition. By J. M. B. Sill. This beautiful 
book, by a distinguished and experienced teacher, at once adopted for exclusive use 
in the State of Oregon and the city of Detroit, simply releases English Grammar 
from bondage to Latin and Greek formulas. Our language is worthy of being taught 
as a distinct and independent science. It is almost destitute of inflections and yet 
capable of being systematized, and its study may certainly be simplified if treated by 
itself and for itself alone. Superintendent Sill has cut the Gordian knot and lead3 
the van of a new school of grammarians. 



CLARK'S SYSTEM. 
Clark's Easy Lessons in Language 

Contains illustrated object-lessons of the most attractive character, and is couched 
in language freed as much as possible from the dry technicalities of the science. 

Clark's Brief English Grammar. 

Part Lis adapted to youngest learners, and the whole forms a complete " brief 
course " in one volume, adequate to the wants of the common school. There is no- 
where published a superior text-book for learning the English tongue than this. 

Clark's Normal Grammar. 

Designed to occupy the same grade as the author's veteran "Practical" Grammar, 
though the latter is still furnished upon order. The Normal is an entirely new treatise. 
It is a full exposition of the system as described below, with all the most recent im- 
provements. Some of its peculiarities are, — a happy blending of Syntheses with 
Analyses; thorough criticisms of common errors in" the use of our language; and 
important improvements in the syntax of sentences and of phrases. 

Clark's Key to the Diagrams. 

Clark's Analysis of the English Language. 

Clark's Grammatical Chart. 

The theory and practice of teaching grammar in American schools is meeting with a 
thorough revolution from the use of this system. While the old methods offer profi- 
ciency to the pupil only after much weary plodding and dull memorizing, this affords 
from the inception the advantage of practical Object Teaching, addressing the eye by 
means of illustrative figures ; furnishes association to the memory, its most powerful 
aid, and diverts the pupil by taxing his ingenuity. Teachers who are using Clark's 
Grammar uniformly testify that they and their pupils find it the most interesting study 
of the school course. 

Like all great and radical improvements, the system naturally met at first with much 
unreasonable opposition. It has not only outlived the greater part of this opposition, 
but finds many of its warmest admirers among those who could not at first tolerate so 
radical an innovation. All it wants is an impartial trial to convince the most scep- 
tical of its merit No one who has fairly and intelligently tested it in the school-room 
has ever been known to go back to the old method. A great success is already 
established, and it is easy to prophesy that the day is not far distant when it will be 
the only system of teaching English Grammar. As the System is copyrighted, no other 
text-books can appropriate this obvious and great improvement. 

Welch's Analysis of the English Sentence. 

Remarkable for its new and simple classification, its method of treating connectives, 
its explanations of the idioms and constructive laws of the language, &c. 

11 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

MONTEITH'S SYSTEM. 

TWO-BOOK SERIES. INDEPENDENT COURSE. 

Elementary Geography. 

Comprehensive Geography (with 103 maps). 

^W^ These volumes are not revisions of old works, not an addition to any series, 
but are entirely new productions, — each by itself complete, independent, compiehen- 
sive, yet simple, brief, cheap, and popular; or, taken together, the most admirable 
*' series " ever ottered for a common-school course. They present the following features, 
skilfully interwoven, the student learning all about one country at a time. Always 
revised to date of printing. 

LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, the Use of Maps. Important features of the maps 
aretlie coloring of States as objects, and the ingenious system for laying down a much 
larger number of names for reference than are lound ou any other maps of same size, 
and without crowdine. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, the Natural Features of the Earth; illus- 
trated by the original and striking relief maps, being bird's-eye views or photographic 
pictures' of the earth's surface. 

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. — Including the Physical; with some account 
of Governments and Races, Animals, &c. 

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, a brief summary of the salient points of 
history, explaining the present distribution of nations, origin of geographical 
names, &c. 

MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Including Astronomical, which describes 
the Earth's position and character among planets ; also the Zones, Parallels, &c. 

COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY. —Or, a system of analogy, connecting new 
lessons with the previous ones. Comparative sizes and latitudes are shown on the 
margin of each map, and all countries are measured in the " frame of Kansas. " 

TOPICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Consisting of questions for review, and testing 
the student's general and specific knowledge of the subject, with suggestions for 
geographical compositions. 

ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. — A section devoted to this subject, with maps, will 
be appreciated by teachers. It is seldom taught in our common schools, because it 
has heretofore required the purchase of a separate book. 

GRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY, or Map-Drawing by Allen's "Unit of Measure- 
ment" system (now almost universally recognized as without a rival), is introduced 
throughout the lessons, and not as an appendix. 

CONSTRUCTIVE GEOGRAPHY. — Or, Globe-Making. With each book a set 
of map segments is furnished, with which each student may make his own globe by 
following the directions given. 

RAILROAD GEOGRAPHY. — With a grand commercial map of the United 
States, illustrating steamer and railroad routes of travel in the United States, submarine 
telegraph lines, &c. Also a " Practical Tour in Europe." 



MONTEITH AND McNALLY'S SYSTEM. 

THREE AND FIVE BOOKS. NATIONAL COURSE. 

Monteith's First Lessons in Geography. 
Monteith's New Manual of Geography. 
McNally's System of Geography. 

The new edition of McNally's Geography is now ready, rewritten throughout by 
James Monteith and S. C. Frost. In its new dress, printed from new type, and illus- 
trated with 100 new engravings, it is the latest, most attractive, as well as the most 
thoroughly practical book on geography extant 

13 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 
DAVIES AND PECK'S ARITHMETICS. 

OPTIONAL OR CONSECUTIVE. 

The best thoughts of these two illustrious mathematicians are combined in the 
following beautiful works, which are the natural successors of Davies's Arithmetics, 
sumptuously printed, and bound in crimson, green, and gold: — 

Davies and Peck's Brief Arithmetic. 

Also called the "Elementary Arithmetic." It is the shortest presentation of the sub- 
ject, and is adequate for all grades in common schools, being a thorough introduction to 
practical life, except for the specialist. 

At first the authors play with the little learner for a few lessons, by object-teaching 
and kindred allurements ; but he soon begins to realize that study is earnest, as he 
becomes familiar with the simpler operations, and is delighted to find himself master of 
important results. 

The second part reviews the Fundamental Operations on a scale proportioned to 
the enlarged intelligence of the learner. It establishes the General Principles and 
Properties of Numbers, and then proceeds to Fractions. Currency and the Metric 
System are fully treated in connection with Decimals. Compound Numbers and Re- 
duction follow, and finally Percentage with all its varied applications. 

An Index of words and principles concludes the book, lor which every scholar and 
most teachers will be grateful. How much time has been spent in searching for a half- 
forgotten definition or principle in a former lesson ! 

Davies and Peck's Complete Arithmetic. 

This work certainly deserves its name in the best sense. Though complete, it is not, 
like most others which bear the same title, cumbersome. These authors excel in clear, 
lucid demonstrations, teaching the science pure and simple, yet not ignoring convenient 
methods and practical applications. 

For turning out a thorough business man no other work is so well adapted. He will 
have a clear comprehension of the science as a whole, and a working acquaintance 
with detai.s which must serve him well in all emergencies. Distinguishing features of 
the book are the logical progression of the subjects and the great variety of practical 
problems, not puzzles, which are beneath the dignity of educational science. A clear- 
minded critic has said of Dr. Peck's work that it is free from that juggling with 
numbers which some authors falsely call " Analysis." A series of Tables for converting 
ordinary weights and measures into the Metric System appear in the later editions. 



PECK'S ARITHMETICS. 
Peck's First Lessons in Numbers. 

This book begins with pictorial illustrations, and unfolds gradually the science of 
numbers. It noticeably simplifies the subject by developing the principles of addition 
and subtraction simultaneously ; as it does, also, those of multiplication and division. 

Peck's Manual of Arithmetic. 

This book is designed especially or those who seek sufficient instruction to carry 
them successfully through practical life, but have not time for extended stud}'. 

Peck's Complete Arithmetic. 

This completes the series but is a much briefer book than most of the complete 
arithmetics, and is recommended not only for what it contains, but also for what is 
omitted. 

It may be said of Dr. Peck's books more truly than of any other series published, that 
they are clear and simple in definition and rule, and that superfluous matter of every 
kind has been faithfully eliminated, thus magnifying the working value of the book 
and saving unnecessary expense of time and labor. 

19 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



BARNES'S NEW MATHEMATICS. 

In this series Joseph Ficklin, Ph. D., Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy 
in the University of Missouri, lias combined all the best and latest results of practical 
and experimental teaching of arithmetic with the assistance of many distinguished 
mathematical authors. 



Barnes's Elementary Arithmetic. 
Barnes's National Arithmetic. 

These two works constitute a complete arithmetical course in tvjo boohs. 

They meet the demand for text-books that will help students to acquire the greatest 
amount of useful and practical knowledge of Arithmetic by the smallest expenditure of 
time, labor, and money. Nearly every topic in Written Arithmetic is introduced, and its 
principles illustrated, by exercises in Oral Arithmetic. The free use of Equations ; the 
concise method of combining and treating Properties of Numbers; the treatment of 
Multiplication and Division of Fractions in too cases, and then reduced to one ,• Can- 
cellation by the use of the vertical line, especially in Fractions, Interest, and Proportion ; 
the brief, simple, and greatly superior method of working Partial Payments- by the 
"Time Table" and Cancellation ; the substitution of formulas to a great extent for 
rules ; the full and practical treatment of the Metric System, &c, indicate their com- 
pleteness. A variety of methods and processes for the same topic, which deprive the 
pupil of the great benefit of doing a part of the thinking and labor for himself, have 
been discarded. The statement of principles, definitions," rules, &c, is brief and simple. 
The illustrations and methods are explicit, direct, and practical. The great number 
and variety of Examples embody the actual business of the day. The very large 
amount of matter condensed in so small a compass has been accomplished by econo- 
mizing every line of space, by rejecting superfluous matter and obsolete terms, and by 
avoiding the repetition of analyses, explanations, and operations in the advanced topics 
which have been used in the more elementary parts of these books. 

AUXILIARIES. 

For use in district schools, and for supplying a text-book in advanced work for 
classes having finished the course as given in the ordinary Practical Arithmetics, the 
.National Arithmetic has been divided and bound separately, as follows : — 

Barnes's Practical Arithmetic. 

Barnes's Advanced Arithmetic. 

In many schools there are classes that for various reasons never reach bevond 
Percentage. It is just such cases where Barnes s Practical Arithmetic will answer a 
good purpose, at a price to the pupil much less than to buy the complete book. On the 
™ ei \ 1 hand > classes having finished the ordinary Practical Arithmetic can proceed 
with the higher course by using Barnes's Advanced Arithmetic. 

For primary schools requiring simply a table book, and the earliest rudiments 
forcibly presented through object-teaching and copious illustrations, we have 
prepared 

Barnes's First Lessons in Arithmetic, 
which begins with the most elementary notions of numbers, and proceeds, by simple 
steps, to develop all the fundamental principles of Arithmetic. 



Barnes's Elements of Algebra. 

This work, as its title indicates, is elementary in its character and suitable for use, 
(I) in such public schools as give instruction in the Elements of Algebra ; (2) in institu- 
tions of learning whose courses of study do not include Higher Akebra ; (3) in schools 
whose object is to prepare students for entrance into our colleges and universities. 
i nis book will also meet the wants of students of Physics who require some knowledge of 

20 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



Algebra. The student's progress in Algebra depends very largely upon the proper treat- 
ment of the four Fundamental Operation*. The terms Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, 
and Division in Algebra have a wider meaning than in Arithmetic, and these operations 
have been so denned as to include, their arithmetical meaning ; so that the beginner 
is simply called upon to enlarge his views of those fundamental operations. Much 
attention has been given to the explanation of the negative sign, in order to remove the 
well-known difficulties in the use and interpretation of that sign. Special attention is 
here called to " A Short Method of Removing Symbols of Aggregation," Art. 76. On 
account of their importance, the subjects of Factoring, Greatest Common Dirisor, and 
Least Common Multiple have been treated at greater length than is usual in elementary 
works. In the treatment of Fractions, a method is used which is quite simple, and, 
at the same time, more general than that usually employed. In connection with Bndical 
Quantities the roots are expressed by fractional exponents, for the principles and rules 
applicable to integral exponents may then be used without modification. The Equation 
is made the chief subject of thought in this work. It is defined near the beginning, 
and used extensively in every chapter. In addition to this, four chapters are devoted 
exclusively to the subject of Equations. All Proportions are equations, and in their 
treatment as such all the difficulty commonly connected with the subject of Proportion 
disappears. The chapter on Logarithms will doubtless be acceptable to many teachers 
who do not require the student to master Higher Algebra before entering upon the 
study of Trigonometry. 



HIGHER MATHEMATICS. 
Peck's Manual of Algebra, 

Bringiug the methods of Bourdon within the range of the Academic Course. 

Peck's Manual of Geometry. 

By a method purely practical, and unembarrassed by the details which rather confuse 
than simplify science. 

Peck's Practical Calculus. 
Peck's Analytical Geometry. 
Peck's Elementary Mechanics. 
Peck's Mechanics, with Calculus. 

The briefest treatises on these subjects now published. Adopted by the great Univer- 
sities : Yale, Harvard, Columbia, Princeton, Cornell, &c. 

Macnie's Algebraical Equations. 

Serving as a complement to the more advanced treatises on Algebra, giving special 
attention to the analysis and solution of equations with numerical coefficients. 

Church's Elements of Calculus. 

Church's Analytical Geometry. 

Church's Descriptive Geometry. With plates. 2 vols. 

These volumes constitute the "West Point Course "in their several departments. 
Prof. Church was long the eminent professor of mathematics at West Point Military 
Academy, and his works are standard in all the leading colleges. 

Courtenay's Elements of Calculus. 

A standard work of the very highest grade, presenting the most elaborate attainable 
survey of the subject. 

Hackley's Trigonometry. 

With applications to Navigation and Surveying, Nautical and Practical Geometry, 
and Geodesy. 

21 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 




GENERAL HISTORY. 

Monteith's Youth's History of the United States. 

A History of the United States for beginners. It is arranged upon the catechetical plan, 
with illustrative maps and engravings, review questions, dates in parentheses (that their 
study may be optional with the younger class of learners), and interesting biographical 
sketches of all persons who have been prominently identified with the history of our 
country. 

Willard's United States. School and University Editions. 

The plan of this standard work is chronologically exhibited in front of the titlepage. 
The maps and sketches are found useful assistants to the memory ; and dates, usually 
so difficult to remember, are so systematically arranged as in a great degree to obviate 
the difficulty. Candor, impartiality, and accuracy are the distinguishing features of 
the narrative portion. 

Willard's Universal History. New Edition. 

The most valuable features of the " United States " are reproduced in this. The 
peculiarities of the work are its great conciseness and the prominence given to the 
chronological order of events. The margin marks each successive era with great dis- 
tinctness, so that the pupil retains not only the event but its time, and thus fixes the 
order of history firmly and usefully in his mind. Mrs. Willard's books are constantly 
revised, and at all times written up to embrace important historical events of recent 
date. Professor Arthur Gilman has edited the last twenty-five years to 1882. 

Lancaster's English History. 

By the Master of the Stoughton Grammar School, Boston. The most practical of the 
" brief books." Though short, it is not a bare and uninteresting outline, but contains 
enough of explanation and detai 1 to make intelligible the cause and effect of events. 
Their relations to the history and development of the American people is made specially 
prominent. 

Willis's Historical Reader. 

Being Collier's Great Events of History adapted to American schools. This rare 
cuitonie of general history, remarkable for its charming style and judicious selection of 
events on which the destinies of nations have turned, has been skilfully manipulated 
by I'rofessor Willis, with as few changes as would bring the United States into its proper 
position in the historical perspective. As reader or text-book it has few equals and no 
superior. 

Berard's History of England. 

By an authoress well known for the success of her History of the United States. 
The social life of the English people is felicitously interwoven, as in fact, with the civil 
•nd military transactions of the realm. 

Ricord's History of Rome. 

Possesses the charm of an attractive romance. The fables with which this history 
abounds are introduced in such a way as not to deceive the inexperienced, while adding 
materially to the value of the work as a reliable index to the character and institutions, 
a*j well as the history of the Roman people. 

22 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

DRAWING. 

BARNES'S POPULAR DRAWING SERIES. 

Based upon the experience of the most successful teachers of drawing in the United 
States. 

The Primary Course, consisting of a manual, ten cards, and three primary 
drawing books, A, B, and (J. 

Intermediate Course. Four numbers and a manual. 

Advanced Course. Pout numbers and a manual. 

Instrumental Course. Four numbers and a manual. 

The Intermediate, Advanced, and Instrumental Courses are furnished either in book 
or card form at the same prices. Tne books contain the usual blanks, with the unusual 
advantage of opening from the pupil, — placing the copy directly in front and above 
the blank, thus occupying but little desk-room. The curds are in the end more econom- 
ical than the books, if used in connection with the patent blank folios that accompany 
this series. 

The cards are arranged to be bound (or tied) in the folios and removed at pleasure. 
The pupil at the end of each number has a complete book, containing only his own 
work, while the copies are preserved and inserted in another folio ready for use in the 
next class. 

Patent Blank Folios. No. 1. Adapted to Intermediate Course. No. 2. Adapted 
to Advanced and Instrumental Courses. 

ADVANTAGES OF THIS SERIES. 

The Plan and Arrangement. — The examples are so arranged that teachers and 
pupils can see, at a glance, how they are to be treated and where they are to be copied. 
In this system, copying and designing do not receive all the attention. The plan is 
broader in its aims, dealing with drawing as a branch of common-school instruction, 
and giving it a wide educational value. 

Correct Methods. — In this system the pupil is led to rely upon himself, and not 
upon delusive mechanical aids, as printed guide-marks, &c. 

One of the principal objects of any good course in freehand drawing is to educate the 
eye to estimate location, form, and size. A system which weakens the motive or re- 
moves the necessity of thinking is false in theory and ruinous in practice. The object 
should be to educate, not cram ; to develop the intelligence, not teach tricks. 

Artistic Effect. — The beauty of the examples is not destroyed by crowding the 
pages with useless and badly printed text. The Manuals contain all necessary 
instruction. 

Stages of Development. — Many of the examples are accompanied by diagrams, 
showing the different stages of development. 

Lithographed Examples. — The examples are printed in imitation of pencil 
drawing (not in hard, black lines) that the pupil's work may resemble them. 

One Term's Work. — Each book contains what can be accomplished in an average 
term, and no more. Thus a pupil finishes one book before beginning another. 

Quality — not Quantity. — Success in drawing depends upon the amount of thought 
exercised by the pupil, and not upon the large number of examples drawn. 

Designing. — Elementary design is more skilfully taught in this system than by 
any other, in addition to the instruction given in the books, the pupil will find printed 
on the insides of the covers a variety of beautiful patterns. 

Enlargement and Reduction!! — The practice of enlarging and reducing from 
copies is not commenced until the pupil is well advanced in the course and therefore 
better able to cope with this difficult feature in drawing. 

Natural Forms. —This is the only course that gives at convenient intervals easy 
and progressive exercises in the drawing of natural forms. 

Economy. — By the patent binding described above, the copies need not be thrown 
aside when a book is filled out, but are preserved in perfect condition for future use. 
The blank books, only, will have to be purchased after the hrst introduction, thus effect- 
ing a saving of more than half in the usual cost of drawing-books. 

Manuals for Teachers. — The Manuals accompanying this series contain practical 
instructions for conducting drawing in the class-room, with definite directions for draw- 
ing each of the examples in the books, instructions for designing, model and object 
drawing, drawing from natural forms, &c. 

28 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

DR. STEELE'S ONE-TERM SERIES, 
IN ALL THE SCIENCES. 

Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Chemistry. 
Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Astronomy. 
Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Physics. 
Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Geology. 
Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Physiology. 
Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Zoology. 
Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Botany. 

Our text-books in these studies are, as a general thing, dull and uninteresting. 
They contain from 400 to 600 pages of dry facts and unconnected details. They abound 
in that which the student cannot learn, much less remember. The pupil commences 
the study, is confused by the hue print and coarse print, and neither knowing exactly 
what to learn nor what to hasten over, is crowded through the single term generally 
assigned to each branch, and frequently comes to the close without a definite and exact 
idea of a single scientific principle. 

Steele's " Fourteen-Weeks Courses " contain only that which every well-informed per- 
son should know, while all that which concerns only the professional scientist is omitted. 
The language is clear, simple, and interesting, and the illustrations bring the subject 
within the range of home life and daily experience. They give such of the general 
principles and the prominent facts as a pupil can make familiar as household words 
within a single term. The type is large and open ; there is no fine print to annoy ; 
the cuts are copies of genuine experiments or natural phenomena, and are of fine 
execution. 

In fine, by a system of condensation peculiarly his own, the author reduces each 
branch to tlie limits of a single term of study, while sacrificing nothing that is essential, 
and nothing that is usually retained from the study of the larger manuals in common 
use. Thus the student has rare opportunity to economize his time, or rather to employ 
that which he has to the best advantage. 

A notable feature is the author's charming "style," fortified by an enthusiasm over 
his subject in which the student will not fail to partake. Believing that Natural 
Science is full of fascination, he has moulded it into a form that attracts the attention 
and kindles the enthusiasm of the pupiL 

The. recent editions contain the author's "Practical Questions" on a plan never 
before attempted in scientific text-books. These are questions as to the nature and 
cause of common phenomena, and are not directly answered in the text, the design 
being to test and promote an intelligent use of the student's knowledge of the foregoing 
principles. 

Steele's Key to all His Works. 

This work is mainly composed of answers to the Practical Questions, and solutions of the 
problems, in the author's celebrated " Fourteen-Weeks Courses " in the several sciences, 
With many hints to teachers, minor tables, &c. Should be on every teacher's desk. 

Prof. J. Dorman Steele is an indefatigable student, as well as author, and his books 
have reached a fabulous circulation. It is safe to say of his books that they have 
accomplished more tangible and better results in the class-room than any other ever 
offered to American schools, and have been translated into more languages for foreign 
schools. They are even produced in raised type for the blind. 

32 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



^ESTHETICS. 

Huntington's Manual of the Fine Arts,, 

A view of the rise and progress of art in different countries, t> brief account of the 
most eminent masters of art, and an analysis of the principles 01 art. It is complete 
in itself, or may precede to advantage the critical work of Lord Karnes. 

Boyd's Karnes's Elements of Criticism. 

The best edition of this standard work ; without the study of which none may be 
considered proficient in the science of the perceptions. No other study can be pursued 
with so marked an effect upon the taste and refinement of the pupil. 



ELOCUTION. 

Watson's Practical Elocution. 

A scientific presentment of accepted principles of elocutionary drill, with black- 
board diagrams and full collection of examples for class drill. Cloth. 90 pages, 12mo. 

Taverner Graham's Reasonable Elocution. 

Based upon the belief that true elocution is the right interpretation of thought, 
and guiding the student to an intelligent appreciation, instead of a merely mechanical 
knowledge, of its rules. 

Zachos's Analytic Elocution. 

All departments of elocution — such as the analysis of the voice and the sentence, 
phonology, rhythm, expression, gesture, &c. — are here arranged for instruction in 
classes, illustrated by copious examples. 



SPEAKERS. 

Northend's Little Orator. 
Northend's Child's Speaker. 

Two little works of the same grade but different selections, containing simple and 
attractive pieces for children under twelve years of age. 

Northend's Young Declaimer. 
Northend's National Orator. 

Two volumes of prose, poetry, and dialogue, adapted to intermediate and grammar 
classes respectively. 

Northend's Entertaining Dialogues. 

Extracts eminently adapted to cultivate the dramatic faculties, as well as entertain. 

Oakey's Dialogues and Conversations. 

For school exercises and exhibitions, combining useful instruction. 

James's Southern Selections, for Reading and Oratory. 

Embracing exclusively Southern literature. 

Swett's Common School Speaker. 
Raymond's Patriotic Speaker. 

A superb compilation of modern eloquence and poetry, with original dramatic 
exercises. Nearly every eminent modern orator is represented. 

40 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

MODERN LAN GUAGES- 

A COMPLETE COURSE IN THE GERMAN. 

By James H. Worman, A.M., Professor of Modern Languages in the Adelphi Acad' 
emy, Brooklyn, L. I. 

Worman's First German Book. 
Worman's Second German Book. 
Worman's Elementary German Grammar. 
Worman's Complete German Grammar. 

These volumes are designed for intermediate and advanced classes respectively. 

Though following the same general method with " Otto " (that of " Gaspey '"'), our 
author differs essentially in its application. He is more practical, more systematic 
more accurate, and besides introduces a number of invaluable features which have 
never before been combined in a German grammar. 

Among other things, it may be claimed for Professor Worman that he has been the 
first to introduce, in an American text-book lor learning German, a system of analogy and 
comparison with other languages. Our best teachers are also enthusiastic about his 
methods of inculcating the art of speaking, of understanding the spoken language, of 
correct pronunciation ; the sensible and convenient original classification of nouns (in 
four declensions), and of irregular verbs, also deserves much praise. We also note the 
use of heavy type to indicate etymological changes in the paradigms and, in the exer- 
cises, the parts which specially illustrate preceding rules. 

Worman's Elementary German Reader. 
Worman's Collegiate German Reader. 

The finest and most judicious compilation of classical and standard German literature. 
These works embrace, progressively arranged, selections from the masterpieces of 
Goethe, Schiller, Korner, Seume, Uhland, Freiligrath, Heine, Schlegel, Holty, Lenau, 
Wieland, Herder, Lessing, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Winkelmann, Humboldt, Banke, 
Raumer, Menzel, Gervinus, &c, and contaiu complete Goethe's " Iphigenie," Schiller's 
"Jungfrau;" also, for instruction in modern conversational German, Benedix's 
" Eigensinn." 

There are, besides, biographical sketches of each author contributing, notes, explan- 
atory and philological (after the text), grammatical references to all leading grammars, 
as well as the editor's own, and an adequate Vocabulary. 

Worman's German Echo. 

Worman's German Copy-Books, 3 Numbers. 

On the same plan as the most approved systems for English penmanship, with 
progressive copies. 

CHAUTAUQUA SERIES. 
First and Second Books in German. 

By the natural or Pestalozzian System, for teaching the language without the help 
of the Learner's Vernacular. By James H. Worman, A. M. 

These books belong to the new Chautauqua German Language Series, and are in- 
tended for beginners learning to speak German. The peculiar features, of its method 
are : — 

1. It teaches the language by direct appeal to illustrations of the objects 
referred to, and does not allow the student to guess what is said, lie speaks from the 
first hour understandinglv and accurately. Therefore, 

2. Grammar is taught both analytically and synthetically throughout the 
course. The beginning is made with the auxiliaries of tense and mood, because their 
kinship with the English makes them easily intelligible ; then follow the declensions of 
nouns, articles, and other parts of speech, always systematically arranged. It is easy 
to confuse the pupil by giving him one person or one case at a time. This pernicious 
practice is discarded. Books that beget unsystematic habits of thought are worse than 
worthless. 

43 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



SCHOOL MUSIC. 

The National School Singer. 

Bright, new music for the day school, embracing Song Lessons, Exercise Songs, Songs 
of Study, Order, Promptness, and Obedience, of Industry and Nature, Patriotic and 
Temperance Songs, Opening and Closing Songs ; in fact, everything needed in the 
school-room. By an eminent musician and composer. 

Jepson's Music Readers. 3 vols. 

These are not books from which children simply leam songs, parrot-like, but teach 
the subject progressively, the scholar learning to read music by methods similar to 
tho^e employed in teaching him to read printed language. Any teacher, however igno- 
rant of music, provided he can, upon trial, simply sound the scale, may teach it without 
assistance, and will end by being a good singer himself. The " Elementary Music 
Reader," or first volume, fuily develops the system. The two companion volumes carry 
the same method into the higher grades, but their use is not essential. 

The First Reader is also published in three parts, at thirty cents each, for those who 
prefer them in that form. 

Nash and Bristow's Cantara. 

The first volume is a complete musical text-book for schools of every grade. No. 2 is 
a choice selection of solos and part songs. The authors are Directors of Music 
in the public schools of New York City, in which these books are the standard of 
instruction. 

The Polytechnic. 

Collection of Part Songs for High and Normal Schools and Clubs. This work con- 
tains a quantity of exceedingly valuable material, heretofore accessible only in sheet 
form or scattered in numerous and costly works. The collection of " College Songs " 
is a very attractive feature. 

Curtis's Little Singer, — School Vocalist. 

Kingsley's School-Room Choir, — Young Ladies' 

Harp. 
Hager's Echo (A Cantata). 



SCHOOL DEVOTIONAL EXERCISE. 

Brooks's School Manual of Devotion. 

This volume contains daily devotional exercises, consisting of a hymn, selections of 
Scripture for alternate reading by teacher and pupils, and a prayer. Its value for open- 
ing and closing school is apparent. 

Brooks's School Harmonist. 

Contains appropriate tunes for each hymn in the " Manual of Devotion " described 
above. 

Bartley's Songs for the School. 

A selection of appropriate, hymns of an unsectarian character, carefully classified 
and set to popular and " singable " tunes, for opening and closing exercises. The Secu- 
lar Department is full of bright and well-selected music. 

49 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

LIBRARY AND MISCELLANEOUS 
PUBLICATIONS. 



TEACHERS' WORKING LIBRARY. 
Object Lessons. Welch. 

This is a complete exposition of the popular modern system of "object-teaching," 
for teachers of primary classes. 

Theory and Practice of Teaching. Page. 

This volume has, without doubt, been read by two hundred thousand teachers, and 
its popularity remains undiminished, large editions being exhausted yearly. It was 
the pioneer, as it is now the patriarch, of professional works for teachers. 

The Graded School. Wells. 

The proper way to organize graded schools is here illustrated. The author has availed 
himself of the best elements of the several systems prevalent in Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and other cities. 

The Normal. Holbrook. 

Carries a working school on its visit to teachers, showing the most approved methods 
of teaching all the common branches, including the technicalities, explanations, demon- 
strations, and definitions introductory and peculiar to each branch. 

School Management. Holbrook. 

Treating of the teacher's qualifications ; how to overcome difficulties in self and 
others ; organization ; discipline ; methods of inciting diligence and order ; strategy 
in management ; object-teaching. 

The Teachers' Institute. Fowle. 

This is a volume of suggestions inspired by the author's experience at institutes, in 
the instruction of young teachers. A thousand points of interest to this class are most 
satisfactorily dealt with. 

Schools and Schoolmasters. Dickens. 

Appropriate selections from the writings of the great novelist. 

The Metric System. Davies. 

Considered with reference to its general introduction, and embracing the views of 
John Quincy Adams and Sir John Herschel. 

The Student ; The Educator. Phelps. 2 vols. 
The Discipline of Life. Phelps. 

The authoress of these works is one of the most distinguished writers on education, 
and they cannot fail to prove a valuable addition to the School and Teachers' Libraries, 
being in a high degree both interesting and instructive. 

Law of Public Schools. Burke. 

By Finley Burke, Counsellor-at-Law. A new volume in " Barnes's Teachers' Library 
Series." 12mo, cloth. 






"Mr. Burke has given us the latest 
expositions of the law on this highly im- 
portant subject. I shall cordially com- 
mend his treatise." — Theodore Dwight, 
LL.D. 

From the Hon. Joseph M. Beck, Judge of 
Supreme Court. Iowa. 

" I have examined with considerable 
care the manuscript of ' A Treatise on the 



Law of Public Schools.' by Finley Burke, 
Esq., of Council Bluffs. In my opinion, 
the work will be of great value to school 
teachers and school officers, and to law- 
yers. The subjects treated of are thought- 
fully considered and thoroughly examined, 
and correctly and systematically arranged. 
The style is perspicuous. The legal doc- 
trines of the work, so lar as I have been 



53 



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